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MTTJEAL HISTOEI. 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 



/ 

WORTHINGTON HOOKER, M.D., 

PROFESSOR OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE IN YALE COLLEGE, 

AUTHOR OF ''human PHYSIOLOGY," " CHILD'S BOOK OF NATURE," 

ETC., ETC. 



KUusttatetr l)g nearly 300 SEttfltabings, 



NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 

1860. 



Ho^i 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and sixty, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District 
of New York. 






PREFACE. 



There are many good books on Zoology, or Nat- 
ural History, as it is commonly termed ; but none are 
properly adapted to instruction in schools. Some of 
them are too popular in their character, and some, on 
the other hand, are too scientific, or, rather, contain 
too many of the details of science ; while in all there 
is too much matter, so that the pupil is confused with 
the multitude of things brought to view, and there- 
fore obtains definite ideas of but few of them. I have 
aimed in this book to avoid these defects. My object 
has been to cull out from the immense mass of mate- 
rial which Zoology presents that which every well-in- 
forined person ought to hnoiu^ excluding all which is 
of interest and value only to those who intend to be 
thorough zoologists. 

It seems to have been forgotten by most writers 
of text-books on the natural sciences that a book for 
common study should be very different from a book 
for reference. Their books are therefore cumbered 
with much that is not of any use to the great body of 
pupils. The true plan for instruction in schools re- 
quires that, while the class-book should contain, 
clearly stated, only that which all ought to know, the 
teacher should have some works on the subject of a 
more extended character, to which he can refer when- 
ever occasion calls for it. 



PREFACE. 



If a spirit of inquiry be awakened in the class (as 
it surely will be if the text-book be of the right stamp 
and the teacher use it aright), questions will occasion- 
ally be asked which will call for information that 
must be gathered from larger works, or perchance 
from the teacher's own observation. This leads me to 
say that no text-book is rightly constructed that does 
not excite this spirit of inquiry and observation on 
the part of both teacher and pupil. The more it does 
so, the more fully is the true object of teaching attain- 
ed ; for the communication of knowledge is by no 
means of so much importance as the imparting to the 
mind the power and the disposition to acquire it of 
itself Especially is this true of such a study as 
Zoology, which presents to the pupil abundant mate- 
rial for observation on every hand, in the garden and 
in the field, on the land, in the water, and in the air. 

I will mention here some of the books which the 
teacher may use with profit for reference in teaching 
Natural History. Carpenter's Zoology, Carpenter's 
Animal Physiology, Agassiz and Gould's Principles 
of Zoology, Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, Eedfield's 
Zoological Science, Nuttal's Ornithology, Kirby and 
Spence's Entomology, Harris on North American In- 
sects, Jaeger's Life of North American Insects, Jones's 
Aquarian Naturalist, Buckland's Curiosities of Natu- 
ral History, Broderip's Note -book of a Naturalist, 
Harvey's Sea-side Book, Eennie's Insect Architecture, 
Brocklesby's Yiews of the Microscopic World. Any 
of these will be of great advantage to the teacher, but 
I would especially recommend Carpenter's Zoology, 
which constitutes two volumes in Bohn's Scientific 
Library. Eedfield's Chart answers a good purpose in 



PBEFACE. HI 



presenting to a class a bird's-eye view of the animal 
kingdom. 

In order that Natural History may be taught effi- 
ciently, it is necessary that the pupil should have 
some knowledge of Physiology. It will be well for 
him, therefore, to go through my ^' First Book in 
Physiology" before entering on the study of this 
book, and better still would it be if he has also gone 
through my *' Child's Book of Nature," in the Second 
Part of which are presented such views of Physiology 
and Natural History together as can be readily com- 
prehended by children of nine or ten years of age. 
Throughout the present work I have been particular 
to develop the intimate connection existing between 
Physiology and Zoology, knowing that a neglect of 
this point would abate essentially from both the in- 
terest and the usefulness of the study. 

The study of Zoology has as yet been but little 
pursued, and I will present here some considerations 
which will show that it ought to have quite a promi- 
nence not only in academies, but also in our common 
schools. 

First, this study has a practical bearing upon many 
of the most valuable and extensive occupations of 
man, agriculture, horticulture, etc. Many animals 
share with man the fruits of the earth, and therefore 
it is important for him to know how far and in what 
ways to prevent their undue increase. Then, again, 
some animals live on those which are destructive to 
the fruits raised by man, and so are really serviceable 
rather than injurious to him. How many mistakes 
have been made for want of proper observation of the 
habits of such animals ! * Many a bird, for example, 



IV PREFACE. 



has been killed because lie picked up a few grains or 
ate a small quantity of fruit, when he really was of 
great service to the farmer or gardener, because he 
devoured daily a large number of worms, the grain 
or the fruit being a very small portion of his food. 
A war was year after year waged by every cotton- 
grower against an insect which was supposed to be 
very destructive to the plant. But after a while it 
was discovered that a great mistake had been made — 
that another smaller insect did the mischief, and that 
the one which had been destroyed in such great num- 
bers was really the cotton-grower's friend, for it lived 
by preying upon this smaller insect. One example 
more shall suffice, although great numbers of a similar 
character might be cited. It is stated by BufEbn that 
there was once great danger that the island of Bour- 
bon would be entirely devastated by locusts, but it 
was saved from this catastrophe by the knowledge 
which the governor had of a fact in Natural History. 
He happened to know that a bird in India, called the 
Grakle, was of great service in destroying the eggs 
and grubs of these insects, and he therefore had a 
large number of pairs of this bird imported into the 
island. They multiplied rapidly, and in a few years 
the locusts were exterminated. But now the grakles, 
their natural food having given out, fell to digging 
up and eating the seeds sown in the ground. The 
people thereupon were aroused against them, and 
even obtained the enactment of a law for their exter- 
mination. But in a few years they saw their error, 
for the locusts largely increased again. A new sup- 
ply of grakles was obtained, and their preservation 
was secured by very rigid enactments. So high were 



PREFACE. 



the grakles in favor as iQcust-killers, that physicians 
were directed to proclaim that their flesh was un- 
wholesome, to prevent the people from eating grakle- 
pie, of which they were very fond. ^'But this extra- 
ordinary care," says Carpenter, '^ was injurious. The 
birds soon again cleared the island of locusts, and de- 
stroyed the grubs which injure the coffee-plantations. 
But when this supply failed them, they proceeded to 
attack the corn-fields and orchards, and even killed 
the young of pigeons and other domestic birds. In 
order to restore the balance, a sort of Malthusian law 
was enacted to prevent their numbers exceeding the 
quantity of their legitimate food ; and when thus kept 
in check, they continued to do good without any ad- 
mixture of evil." 

Such facts as these indicate the wide benefits which 
the science of agriculture may derive from accurate 
observation of the habits and relations of animals. 
The more minds there are brought to engage in such 
observations, the more facts will be gathered into the 
common stock of information. And as the accuracy 
and extent of the observations depend on proper ed- 
ucation in the observer, it is important that the ob- 
serving powers be trained early; and we may say, 
therefore, that the whole subject of the relation of 
animal to vegetable life, so important to the farmer 
and the gardener, will never be thoroughly understood 
till the study of Nature be made prominent from the 
very beginning of education. 

As animals furnish man, to a great extent, with food 
and clothing, and a large variety of articles for use and 
ornament, an increased observation would undoubt- 
edly increase the amount of resources obtained from 



PREFACE. 



the animal kingdom. Wen^ay go farther than this, 
and say, that if we had been ready to take hints from 
the structures which we find in animals, and those 
which are built up by them, many improvements in 
the arts might have advanced much more rapidly 
than they have done. For example, in the construc- 
tion of optical instruments, a difficulty which Sir Isaac 
ISTewton thought never could be remedied, chromatic 
aberration, might have been remedied long before it 
was if that perfect optical instrument made by the 
Creator, the Eye, had been properly examined in re- 
lation to this point. So, too, paper might long ago 
have been made from wood, if the habits of that first 
paper-maker, the wasp, had been observed. 

Another reason for making this study prominent is, 
that its connection with other studies is such that it 
contributes greatly to their interest and resources. 
This is true, for example, of Geography. It adds 
vastly to the interest of this study to have the pupil 
know familiarly how the various tribes of animals are 
distributed over the earth, and what relation this dis- 
tribution has to climate, situation, etc. The connec- 
tion between Zoology and Geology is of the most in- 
timate character, as the pupil will see in the course of 
his study of this book. Then, too. Chemistry and 
Natural Philosophy, especially the latter, have many 
of their best illustrations in the composition aiid struc- 
ture of animals, so that Zoology, with its relations to 
Physiology properly developed, will offer no incon- 
siderable additions to the interest of the two depart- 
ments of science above named. 

But the grand practical benefit to be derived from 
the study of Natural History, or, indeed, any of the 



PREFACE. VU 



natural sciences, is the discipline which it gives the 
mental powers. It cultivates the perceptive and rea- 
soning powers together, thus forming that habit of 
intelligent observation which makes its possessor, as a 
matter of course, a person of extensive general infor- 
mation, and is an essential element of success in almost 
any pursuit in which he may engage. 

In the present prevalent mode of conducting educa- 
tion the observing powers of the mind are, we may 
say, systematically neglected. A premium, even, is 
paid for their neglect ; for the study of language, the 
execution of the processes of mathematics, and the 
memorizing of Geography, Grammar, etc., are allow- 
ed to have such exclusive possession in most of our 
school-rooms, that any disposition on the part of a 
pupil to attend to Zoology, or any of the natural 
sciences, must be repressed, if he wishes to maintain 
his standing in school. And even if such studies are 
admitted at all, they commonly have a very subor- 
dinate place in the general arrangement, and an ex- 
amination for the purpose of determining the standing 
of the pupil is not extended to such studies, because 
they are not deemed essential, but only extraordinary 
and ornamental. 

This strange neglect of these studies is seen even in 
our colleges. When a young man, for instance, en- 
ters Yale College, he is not supposed to know any 
thing of the natural sciences, or at least no knowledge 
of them is required as a qualification for admission. 
And after his admission, he is drilled in mathematics 
and the languages alone for two long years. The 
natural sciences are wholly excluded till his junior 
year, when he begins to attend to Natural Philosophy, 



Vm PREFACE. 



and in his senior year he is taught, necessarily in a 
very hurried manner, in Chemistry, Mineralogy, and 
Geology* Yale College by no means stands alone in 
this respect, for very nearly the same is true of most 
of the colleges in this country, showing how little im- 
portance is attached to the study of the natural sci- 
ences as a part of the system of education. 

All this is radically wrong. The natural sciences 
ought to have a place on an equality with the other 
studies, and from the outset. The child, when he be- 
gins to attend school, is interested in any thing that 
calls forth suitably that joint employment of his per- 
ceptive and reasoning powers which we call observa- 
tion; and, therefore, with his first learning to read, 
natural objects should be made the subjects of instruc- 
tion. All teachers who have used my ^' Child's Book 
of Common Things," and who, in connection with its 
use, have brought natural objects into the school-room 
for ^' object lessons," as they are termed, know by ex- 
perience that the plan recommended is a feasible one. 
This is teaching science ; in a small way, it is true, 
but yet teaching it, and laying a good foundation for 
farther instruction, not merely in the facts learned, 
but in the habits of observation which are formed. 
There are numberless facts about air, water, light, 
plants, animals, etc., which the youngest pupils can 
understand, if they are presented in the right manner. 
And the busy inquiries which they make after the 
reasons of the phenomena, and their appreciation of 
them, if stated simply and without technical terms, 
show that such teaching is not profitless. Children 
are better philosophers than is commonly supposed. 

Beginning thus, the natural sciences should be made 



PREFACE. IX 

prominent throughout the whole course of education^ not 
only because they contain largely wliat is of practical 
use in many of the avocations of life, and what needs 
to be known to give any one the character of a well- 
informed man, but also because they are quite as ef- 
ficient in disciplining the powers of the mind as the 
study of the mathematics and the languages. It is 
clear that they are essential to a symmetrical mental 
development, for when they are neglected the observ- 
ing powers are not duly educated. And besides, 
while it is the peculiar province of the study of mathe- 
matics to promote exactness of thought and reasoning, 
it fails to give that exaltation and wide range of mind 
which the investigation of the grand general princi- 
ples of nature, the traces of the power and wisdom of 
the Creator, tends to produce. Then, again, the study 
of the natural sciences aids the pupil in acquiring a 
knowledge of language, for natural objects and proc- 
esses furnish a large proportion of the words in daily 
use, and the mathematics derive so much of their real 
interest from their numerous applications to the facts 
which natural science brings to view, that the one 
class of studies is auxiliary to the pursuit of the other. 
On the whole, then, we may say that the three classes 
of studies indicated should, for the most part, go on 
together, and that the only question should be in re- 
gard to the proportion of time which ought to be de- 
voted to each. 

Many other considerations might be presented in 
favor of making Zoology and the other natural sci- 
ences prominent in education, but I will notice but 
two of them. One is the fact that they open never- 
ending resources for agreeable mental employment. 
A 2 



X PREFACE. 

The plienomena of nature are ever before us, and their 
variety is without limit. One, therefore, who has 
pursued the study of nature throughout his course of 
education will never be at a loss for fresh material for 
observation. Especially is this true of that science to 
which the pupil is introduced in the present work. 

The only other consideration which I shall present 
is the moral effect of the early study of natural science. 
Ever varying views of the traces of the wisdom, power, 
and goodness of the Deity can not fail to lodge in the 
young mind sentiments and opinions, which will be 
apt to forestall successfully the arguments of skep- 
ticism that may be presented in after years. No 
mere general views can do this, though they are often 
relied upon ; but the actual and definite knowledge 
which study and observation give is required to effect 
it. This benefit can hardly be overestimated. The 
preoccupation of the mind by clear and abundant evi- 
dence is a preventive measure of vast importance. 
Better is it thus to shut out error, than to permit its 
admission and then attempt to cast it out. 

The author has in the course of preparation books 
on some of the other natural sciences — Natural Philos- 
ophy, Chemistry, etc. — ^having the same general plan 
which has been adopted in this work. His object is 
to aid in the introduction of these studies into the 
common school, as well as the academy and college. 

The books which I have already prepared have 
been used in some schools as reading-books at the 
same time that they are used for study, and with 
marked success. The plan adopted is this. The 
class read the lesson, the teacher remarking upon it 
so far as is thought proper; and then the recitation is 



PKEFACE. XI 

heard at such a time as will allow a sufficient interval 
for the study of the lesson. The benefit of this plan 
consists in making reading a more intelligent and in- 
teresting exercise than it commonlj^ is, for it is thus 
necessarily the distinct object to have the pupils un- 
derstand what they read. In regard to this I would 
remark, that text-books on almost every branch should 
be so constructed, both as to arrangement and style, 
that they can be used in the way indicated. Let 
me not be understood to mean that I would discard 
^'reading-books" altogether, but I would not have 
reading taught solely by them. 

I have subjoined to this book a full index, and also 
a glossary upon a new plan. Technical terms I have 
made it a point to explain whenever they are first in- 
troduced ; and therefore, in the Glossary, instead of 
giving the explanation of any term, I refer simply to 
the paragraph where the explanation may be found. 

W. Hooker. 

New Haven, May, 1860. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER I. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 

1. The Animal Kingdom has four grand divisions, or 
sub-kingdoms : the Vertebrates, the Articulates, the Mol- 
lusks, and the Radiates. 

2. The animals of the vertebrate sub-kingdom have a 
frame-work, or skeleton of bones, inside, covered up by- 
some of the soft parts of the body. In Fig. 1 (p. 14) 
you have the skeleton of man. You see that somewhat 
round box of bones which contains the brain ; the col- 
umn of bones, 24 in number, extending from this through 
the trunk of the body ; the jyelvis^ consisting of a wedge- 
shaped bone supporting this column and two broad, 
flaring bones, m and Z, on each side ; the breast-bone, 
with the ribs extending from it to the column of bones 
in the rear, and the collar-bone, g^ stretching from it as 
a prop to the top of the shoulder joint ; the arm-bone, ^, 
with the two bones of the forearm, n and o, and the nu- 
merous small bones of the hand ; the thigh-bones ; the 
bones of the leg, v and ^^, and those of the foot of about 
the same number with those of the hand. 

3. That part of the skeleton in which man is like a 
J great variety of other animals is the central 

column of bones, and this is therefore taken as 
the characteristic of the division including man 
and these animals. In Fig. 2 you have one of 
the bones of this column, a being its front part, 
2*— Sin ^^^ * ^^^ sharp rear part, termed the spinous 
gie Vertebra, proccss. It is the row of thcsc rear sharp parts 




14 



NATUKAL HISTOKY. 




Fig. 1.— Skeleton of Man. 



CLASSIFICATION^ OF ANIAIALS. 



15 



of the bones that you feel as you pass your finger up and 
down the middle of the back. Each of these bones is 
called a vertebra (plural vertehroe). Therefore all ani- 
mals that have this column or chain of bones are called 
vertebrate animals. It is varied, as you will see, in dif- 
ferent animals to suit different circumstances, and yet it 
is in essential points the same thing in all. 

4. This vertebral column is found in all quadrupeds, 
as you see in this skeleton of a camel. The dark part 




Fig. 3.— Skeleton of the Camel. 



of the figure shows the full size of the animal. You ob- 
serve that the spinous processes of the vertebrae of the 
back make a high, strong ridge. This is because to them 
are fastened the muscles that hold up the heavy neck and 
head. 

5. Birds have this column, as you see in Fig. 4 (p. 16), 
the skeleton of an ostrich. Here there are very many 
more vertebrae in the neck than there are in the neck of 



16 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 4. — Skeleton of the Ostrich, 



man, and near the head they are small, because the head 
is so small and therefore light. 

6. In fishes the chain of vertebrae extends through the 
middle of the body, as you see in Fig. 5. Then there 




Fig. 5 Skeleton of the Perch. 



CLASSIFICATION OP ANIMALS. 



17 



is another chain of bones of a slighter make along the 
back, their spinous processes being the frame-work of the 
fins of the back. 

7. The turtle or tortoise tribe have the body covered 
with an upper and an under bony plate. But they have 
connected with the under side of the upper plate a true 
vertebral column. You see this in Fig. 6. The lower 




Fig. 6.— Skeleton of the Turtle. 

plate is removed from this skeleton of a turtle to show 
the vertebral column in its whole length. 

8. This chain or column extends out to the end of the 
turtle's tail. It is so with all the tails of four-footed an- 
imals. In the necks of birds, and generally of quadru- 
peds, and in the tails of the latter there is quite a free 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



motion among tlie vertebrae ; while in the body of the 
animal the motion between them is slight. 

9. In the snake tribe of Vertebrates the vertebrae are 
very numerous, and the motion between them is as free 
as in the tails of quadrupeds. Some species have over 
three hundred, while in man there are only twenty-four. 

10. The skeletons of the different kinds of animals that 
I have mentioned differ from each other in many respects. 
For example, the fish has nothing in its skeleton thjat is 
like the bones of the extremities in man, and that of the 
serpent is composed merely of vertebrae, with very short 

ribs. There are some fishes that have 
no ribs. In the turtle, as you see in Fig. 
6, the ribs spread out into broad plates, 
which, joined together, make its upper 
covering, termed the carapace, 

11. While the differences are of ex- 
treme variety, the skeletons of all these 

^i\^^fe^ animals agree in one thing — in having a 

' \' vertebral column. They are, therefore, 

classed together as vertebrate animals. 

12. Connected with this grand char- 
acteristic of this division of the animal 
kingdom there is another, viz., the ar- 
rangement of the great central organs 
of the nervous system. These are in- 
closed in the skull and vertebral column. 
The brain is in the skull, and the verte- 
brae contain the spinal marrow, which 
extends from the brain through the 
length of the body. Each vertebra has 
a round opening through it, as you see 
in Fig. 2. When, therefore, all the ver- 
tebrae are joined together, there is a 

'^1 f\ tube-like passage through the column. 

' ' ^ In this lies the spinal marrow, or cord, 

^'^nIi"^ord o"f Man"'" as it is oftcn Called. In Fig. n you have 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 19 

a representation of the brain and spinal marrow of man, 
with the beginnings of the nerves that branch out from 
them. Essentially the same arrangement exists in all 
the vertebrate animals. 

13. The second grand division or sub-kingdom of ani- 
mals is that of the Articulates. They have a jointed or 
articulated covering, as, for example, in the case of the 
lobster. They have no skeleton inside, as the Verte- 
brates have, but their coat of armor, as we may call it, 
is their skeleton. The muscles are all fastened to this. 
Thus, in the lobster, the muscles moving the claw have 
one end attached to some portion of the shell of the body, 
and the other to the shell of the claw. 

14. The chief classes or tribes of the Articulates are 
the crab tribe, the worms, the spider and scorpion tribe, 
and the insects. In the crab tribe the jointed covering 
is very hard, being composed chiefly of a mineral sub- 
stance — the carbonate of lime. In most of the insects it 
is very firm, and there is a marked resemblance in the 
claws of such insects as beetles to those of crabs and 
lobsters. Even in the worms the covering is firm com- 
pared with the soft interior parts. 

15. The arrangement of the central organs of the nerv- 
ous system of the Articulates is very difierent from that 

of the Vertebrates. There is no 
skull with a brain in it, and there 
is no spinal cord. There is a chain 
of little brains, as we may say, con- 
nected together by nerves, as rep- 
resented in Fig. 8. Each of these 
is called a ganglion (plural ganglia). 
The first ganglion may be consid- 
ered, for the most part, as corre- 
sponding with the brain in the 
Vertebrates, for the nerves from 
this go to the eyes and the other 

FiiT. 8. — Nervous System of an r> 

Insect. organs oi sense. 




20 



JSTATUEAL HISTOEY. 



16. The third division of the animal kingdom is that 
of the MollusJcs. This term comes from the Latin word 
mollis^ soft. Mollusks are soft animals, most of them 
being inclosed in a hard shell, as the oyster, and all the 
varieties of shell-fish; and others being naked, as the 
slug. The central organs of the nervous system are 
ganglia variously arranged in the difierent orders of 
these animals. 

17. The fourth sub-kingdom of animals is that of the 
JRadiatea, In Fig. 9 you have a representation of one 




Fig. 9.— Star-fish. 

of these animals, the star-fish, which will show you why 
they are called Radiates. You see parts extending like 
rays from the central portion. Radius is the Latin 
word for ray, and hence the name Radiate. 

18. It is the upper side of the star-fish that you see in 
this figure. On the imder side it has a mouth in the 
centre. The arrangement of its nervous system is sin- 




CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 21 

gular. It is seen in Fig. 10. The place of the mouth is 
^ / indicated at a. Around this is a 

nervous cord connecting together 
five gangha, which are at the be- 
ginnings of the five arms of the an- 
imal. From each ganglion a nerve 
goes along each arm ending at its 
point in what is supposed by some 
to be a kind of eye. Though the 
Fig. lo.-Nerv'ous'system of ^uimals of this sub-kingdom have 
star-fish. great variety of form, the arrange- 

ment is essentially the same as that which you see in this 
animal. 

19. These four sub-kingdoms are arranged in the order 
of their rank ; the highest, or rather the most compli- 
cated, being placed first, and the simplest last. This is 
true of them in the general, and yet there are some in any 
one of the three lower divisions or groups that are high- 
er in organization than some of the simplest in the one 
just above it. In the lowest group, the radiate, there 
are some animals which are nothing but a stomach with 
an apparatus to put food into it. The animals of one 
group are sometimes said to be more perfect than those 
of another ; but this is not true, for the organization of 
every animal is perfectly adapted to its wants and its 
mode of existence. 

20. There are many terms used in classifying the ani- 
mals of each sub-kingdom, which you should understand 
at the outset. All animals that come from a common 
origin or parentage are said to belong to the same species. 
Thus all men descended from Adam, and therefore be- 
long to one species, although they difier from each other 
in difierent quarters of the earth. These diflerences 
arise from accidental causes, as climate, food, habits, etc., 
and are not therefore specific differences. They make 
mere varieties^ and not difierent species. So dogs and 
horses belong to two difierent species; but there are 



22 NATURAL HISTORY. 

varieties or breeds of dogs and horses, owing to acci- 
dental causes. 

21. The distinction, then, between different species is 
a definite and fixed one. There can be no dispute about 
it in any case where the facts bearing on the question 
are all known ; but it is not so with other distinctions, 
for they are not based upon specific and definite pecul- 
iarities, and may be varied by different classifiers. A 
genus includes many species that are alike in some things. 
Thus, the genus canis includes dogs, wolves, foxes, jack- 
als, etc., which, though specifically different, are very 
much alike in their teeth, claws, and feet. Then a fam- 
ily includes genera (plural of genus) ; an order includes 
families ; a class ^ orders ; and, finally, orders are included 
in sub-kingdoms or departments. The terms division, 
tribe, and group are variously used by way of conven- 
ience. The term sub-class (under class) is sometimes 
used. It means a grand division of a class, as sub-king- 
dom means a grand division of a kingdom. 

22. The Vertebrates have two grand divisions, the 
warm-blooded and the cold-blooded. The warm-blood- 
ed maintain a high temperature of the blood under vary- 
ing states of the atmosphere. Thus, the blood of man 
is maintained at 98 degrees, even when the temperature 
of the surrounding air is 130 degrees below this. In the 
cold-blooded, on the other hand, the temperature of the 
blood is varied by that of the surrounding air or water. 
The fish when taken out of the water is of the tempera- 
ture of the water, and therefore feels cold to our hands. 

23. There are two classes of the warm-blooded Verte- 
brates : 1. Mammals, or Mammalia (from the Greek word 
/xttjUjua, mamma^ a breast), animals that suckle their 
young ; 2. Birds. The young of Mammals are born alive, 
and therefore Mammals are said to be viviparous^ from 
the Latin words vivus^ alive, and pario^ to bear. Birds 
are called oviparous (pvum^ ^g^^ and parid)^ because 
their young are produced from eggs. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 23 

24. I divide the class Mammals into five sub-classes : 
1. Bimana (Latin bis twice, and manus hand), two-hand- 
ed animals. Man is the only representative of this sub- 
class. 2. Pedimana ( Pes foot, and manus) ^ foot-handed 
animals. This is the ape and monkey tribe. The name 
which I have given it is difierent from that which it 
commonly has in the classifications of zoologists, and the 
grounds of the change I will state when I come to speak 
particularly of this tribe. 3. Cheiroptera, hand- winged 
animals, or the bat tribe. This name is taken from two 
Greek words, yf.ip^ cheir^ hand, and Trrepoy^ pteron^ wing. 
4. Quadrupeds, or four-footed Mammals. Of these there 
are two divisions, the Unguiculata (Latin U7iguis^ a nail 
or claw), and the Ungulata, from ungula^ a hoof. 5. 
Cetacea, marine Mammals, or the w^hale tribe. These 
have neither hands nor feet. They were formerly class- 
ed with fishes, but although they are shaped like fishes, 
they have warm blood, and suckle their young, and have 
lungs and not gills. They, therefore, belong among 
Mammals, although they live in the water. 

Questions. — What are the four gi-and divisions of the Animal King- 
dom? Describe the skeleton of man. What is said of the central 
column of bones ? Describe its arrangement in man. What is said 
of this column in quadrupeds? What of it in birds? What of it in 
fishes ? What of it in the turtle tribe ? What of it in the body, 
neck, and tails of various Vertebrates ? What of it in the snakes ? 
What is said of the variety in the skeletons of different vertebrates? 
Why are they called Vertebrates ? What is said of the nervous sys- 
tem of the Vertebrates ? Describe the arrangement of the spinal mar- 
row. What gives the Articulates their name ? How are the muscles 
of the Articulates arranged ? What are the chief classes of this sub- 
kingdom ? What is said of the covering of these different tribes? 
Describe the arrangement of the nervous system of the Articulates. 
What is said of the Mollusks ? Why do the Radiates have this name? 
What is the arrangement of their nervous system ? What is said of 
the relative rank of the four sub-kingdoms ? What of the use of the 
word perfect in regard to organization ? Give the distinction between 
species and varieties. Give the various terms used in classification 
and their meaning. What are the grand divisions of the Vertebrates ? 



24 NATURAL HISTORY. 

State the difference between them. Give the difference between the 
two classes of warm-blooded Vertebrates. What is the derivation of 
oviparous and viviparous ? Name the sub-classes of the Mammals. 
What is said of the first class ? What of the second ? Of the third ? 
Of the fourth ? Of the fifth ? 



CHAPTER II. 

MAN. 

25. Man is said to stand at the head of the animal 
kingdom. It is well that you should understand pre- 
cisely what this means. We may consider every animal 
as a set of machinery, which is worked by means of the 
nervous system. In some animals this machinery is very 
simple, as in those which are nearly all stomach (§ 19). 
In others it is comphcated. In man it is more so than 
in any other animal. For example, take that part of the 
machinery that is used in motion. Compare man with 
any animal in this respect. How many more motions he 
can make with his feet than a horse, or an ox, or a dog. 
The dog can walk, run, jump, and paw. To say nothing 
of other motions, observe in contrast the extreme varie- 
ties of motion of which the feet of man are capable in 
dancing. 

26. There is no part of the machinery of the body in 
which man is so manifestly superior to other animals as 
in that of the hand. The variety of things that this ma- 
chinery can do is so great, that you can get an adequate 
idea of it only by watching the motions of the hand in 
all the different kinds of work and play in which it en- 
gages.* 

27. Look now at the instrument or machine itself. 
How simple it appears ! You have merely a thumb and 

* This and many other of the points in this chapter are quite fully 
treated in my *' Child's Book of Nature," and ** First Book in Physi- 
ology." 



MAIS'. 25 

four fingers joined to the body of the hand ; but observe 
how the thumb can be made to meet the tip of either 
finger, or to touch the tips of all of them at once, and 
how each finger can move independently of the others, 
or all can move together. Then observe, farther, in how 
many different ways the hand can take hold of different 
things, such as a pen, a whip, a rope, a string, an axe, 
etc. 

28. What appears so simple when we look only at the 
outside, is found to be exceedingly complicated when ex- 
amined within by the anatomist. The frame-w^ork of 
this machine is made up of 32 bones, and there are nu- 
merous muscles with their cords or tendons. Then there 
are countless fibres branching from the nerves into these 
muscles. It is by these nerves that the mind in the brain 
works all this machinery. 

29. Many animals have something like fingers, but 
none but man have any thing like thumbs except the 
monkey and ape tribe, and the opossum family ; and in 
these the thumb is but a poor imitation of this organ in 
man. 

30. While man is superior to all other animals in the 
variety of machinery in his body, there are some things 
in which some animals are superior to him. The horse, 
that is so inferior to man in the variety of his muscular 
movement, has better running machinery than he has. 
The monkey, the squirrel, the cat, etc., are better climb- 
ers. Fishes are better swimmers. And some animals 
have machinery which man does not possess at all, as 
flying machinery. The body of man, then, is superior to 
that of all other animals as a whole, but not in all re- 
spects. 

31. The body of man is superior to that of other ani- 
mals in some things besides those already mentioned. It 
is the only animal body that can maintain a perfectly 
erect position. The monkey can, indeed, stand and walk 
on its hind feet, or rather its foot-hands ; but its position 

B 



26 NATURAL HISTORY. 

is by no means perfectly erect, and it goes on all-fours 
except when compelled to do otherwise by its keeper. 

32. There is superiority also in beauty of form and 
grace of movement. To make the comparison correctly, 
take the most beautiful and graceful of animals, and place 
them side by side with the most beautiful and graceful 
of the human race. Look now at form in detail. Take, 
for example, the upper extremity of man. Is there any 
thing in the limb of any animal to compare with it in its 
varied beauty of outline as it is placed in different posi- 
tions ? Observe, too, its graceful movements, and con- 
trast their endless variety with the very limited grace of 
the corresponding limb of the inferior animal. 

33. But in the face more than in any other part is seen 
this superiority both in form and movement. And when 
we look at the body as a whole, with its commanding 
erectness, the varied grace of all its parts as it moves, 
and its crowning head so full of the graces of expression, 
we realize that the human body is the only one that is a 
fit tenement of a soul made in the image of God. 

34. This leads me to say that really the grand distinc- 
tion between man and other animals is in the mind rath- 
er than in the body. He not only thinks more than any 
other animals do, but much of his thinking is wholly dif- 
ferent from theirs. Even the most thinking of them 
know nothing about the difference between right and 
wrong, or about God ; and you can not in any way teach 
them any thing in relation to such subjects. 

35. As the mind of man is so superior to that of other 
animals, it can use more machinery than theirs can, and 
therefore more machinery is furnished it. For this rea- 
son man has a much larger brain than any other animal 
in proportion to the size of the body. The machinery of 
the hand is furnished to him because his mind requires it 
for the proper exercise of its powers on the world around. 
It would do no good to furnish a horse or a dog with a 
hand, for he would not know how to use it. Each ani- 



lyiAX. 27 

mal is supplied with just the bodily machinery that its 
wants and capabilities require. 

36. It is because the mind of man is not only superior 
to that of other animals, but is different in hind in some 
respects, that man has made and is continually making 
language. This no other animal has ever done. The in- 
ferior animals may have natural cries and signs, but they 
never agree to use artificial ones, and language is naught 
but a set of artificial signs. Some animals imitate spoken 
language, but they never make it. 

37. For the same reason man is the only animal that 
makes tools, and some one proposed to designate man as 
a tool-making animal. I think that we may go so far as 
to say that other animals never use tools placed in their 
way except from imitation of man. And even the most 
knowing and imitative do but little at this. " An ape," 
says Wood, " will sit delighted by a flame which a chance 
traveler has left, and spread its hands over the genial 
blaze ; but when the glowing ashes fade, it has not suffi- 
cient understanding to supply fresh fuel, but sits and 
moans over the expiring embers." 

38. If we look at the mind of man alone we do not 
think of him as an animal. We think of him in this light 
only when we observe his bodily organization, and see 
its resemblance to that of the higher orders of animals, 
and even in some respects to that of the lower also. 
These two views of man are seen in the common expres- 
sions which are used. When we use such expressions as 
man and other animals, or man and the inferior animals, 
we have in view bodily organization. When, on the oth- 
er hand, we use the expression man and animals, we have 
regard to those mental endowments which separate man 
entirely from animals. It is not in this view, but in the 
former, that the zoologist regards man in his classification. 

39. Mankind are one species, as already stated in § 20. 
But there are certain varieties or races of men quite dis- 
tinct from each other. The Caucasian race inhabits, for 



28 NATUKAL HISTOKY. 

the most part, Europe, the western part of Asia, and the 
United States. It is characterized by the oval shape of 
the face, a considerable variety of color both of the skin 
and the hair, and mental superiority. It is called Cauca- 
sian, from the Caucasian Mountains, in the neighborhood 
of which this race was at first settled. Even at the pres- 
ent day it is said that the external characteristics of this 
race are better developed in that locality than any where 
else, the Georgians and Circassians being the handsomest 
people in the world. The negro, or Ethiopian variety, I 
need not describe. The Mongolian race, of which the 
Chinese are the largest family, is characterized by prom- 
inent broad cheek-bones, a flat square face, small oblique 
eyes, straight black hair, a scanty beard, and olive skin. 
The American variety has high cheek-bones, large and 
bold features, except the eyes, which are sunken deeply 
in the sockets, hair generally black and stiff, and a cop- 
per complexion. In the Malay race, inhabiting the isl- 
ands south of Asia, in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the 
complexion is brown, the hair is black and thick, the 
forehead is low and round, the nose is full and broad 
with wide nostrils, and the mouth is large. 

40. So great is the difierence between these varieties, 
especially the Caucasian and the Ethiopian, that some 
believe that they came originally from different pairs. 
But the Bible declares that they were all descended from 
one pair, and almost all physiologists consider this to be 
also proved by a candid examination of facts. The dif- 
ferent races of man are not more distinct from each other 
than the varieties of dogs and other animals. It is a re- 
markable fact that animals which remain wild are not 
apt to have varieties, while in those which are domestic- 
ated by man difierent breeds or varieties arise. Thus 
lions and tigers remain always the same, but dogs, horses, 
etc., have many varieties. So it is Vv^ith man. Under the 
various influences to which he is subjected in society, in 
different ages and localities, varieties are produced. 



foot-ha:n^ded ajs^d ha:n^d-winged vertebrates. 29 

41. The races of men may also be subdivided into va- 
rieties. Each nation has characteristics which are some- 
times very marked. Thus the Enghsh and the Irish can 
ordinarily be readily distinguished at a glance. The 
Jews also have always been remarkably distinct from 
other nations. Then, too, we occasionally see an indi- 
vidual family w^ith such striking peculiarities descending 
from father to son that we may call it a variety. 

Questions. — What is said of the machinery in different animals? 
What of the variety of motion in the foot of man, and in his hand ? 
What of the apparent simplicity of the hand as an instrument ? What 
of its movements ? What of its internal structure ? What is said of 
the thumb ? In what consists the chief superiority of the frame of 
man to that of other animals ? In what respects are some animals 
superior to him? What is said of his erectness? What of his form 
and mode of movement ? What of his face ? W^hat is the grand dis- 
tinction between man and other animals? What is said of the ma- 
chinery which the mind uses ? What is said of language ? What of 
making tools ? What two views are taken of man, and to what modes 
of expression do these give rise ? How many varieties are there of 
the human race, and what are they ? Describe the Caucasian, the 
Ethiopian, the Mongolian, the American, the Malay. What is the 
testimony of the Bible as to their origin ? Give tlie comparison be- 
tween the varieties of the human race, and the varieties in animals. 
What is said of national and family varieties ? 



CHAPTER III. 

EOOT-HAISDED Al^B HAND-WINGED VERTEBRATES. 

42. The sub-class which I call Pedimcma is termed, 
in the common classifications of zoologists, the order 
Quadmmcma^ four-handed animals. It is the ape and 
monkey-tribe. I have already spoken in Chapter II. of 
the capabilities of the hand of man as an instrument. 
If we compare them with the very limited capabilities of 
the hand of the ape or monkey, we must agree with Sir 
Charles Bell, who says that " we ought to define the 



30 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

hand as belonging excliiswely to man." The chief ob- 
ject in the construction of the so-called hands of this 
tribe is to enable them to grasp the limbs of trees in 
climbing, in which they are greatly skilled. They are 
very imitative beings ; but, even when they are subject- 
ed to long training, they can do but a few of the many 
things that can be done by the hands of man. On the 
whole, we may say that they have four members which 
partake in part of the character of a hand, and in part 
of that of a foot. It is for this reason that I have adopt- 
ed the name of Pedimana, foot-handed. There is an- 
other reason for this in the fact stated by Dr. Carpenter, 
that one large division of this tribe have this resemblance 
to hands in only one pair of the extremities, and that the 
hinder pair. It is for this reason that he suggested the 
name w^hich I have adopted, giving it less breadth of 
meaning, however, than I do. The suggestion is so good 
a one, that I wonder that he did not adopt it in his clas- 
sification.* 

* I may be considered by some as presumptuous in thus changing 
a name which has so long been retained in zoological classifications 
that it has almost acquired a right to its place by possession. But 
if the suggestion of Dr. Carpenter be a correct one, following it out 
fully can not only do no harm, but will certainly do good by placing 
the subject in its true light. If Sir Charles Bell is right in saying 
that no animal but man has truly a hand, and if the estimate which, 
in Chapter II., I have put upon this instrument, as fitly corresponding 
with man's mental capabilities, be correct, it is surely going very wide of 
the truth to call the hand-feet of the ape and monkey tribe real hands. 

In this connection, I will remark on another change that I have 
made in the commonly received classification. Ordinarily, man is con- 
sidered as one of the orders of the sub-class Unguiculata. But I have 
put him (§ 24) in a sub-class by himself, thus not only separating him 
more distinctly from other animals, as I think truth requires, but se- 
curing in other respects a more natural classification of the whole class 
of Mammalia. 

In some classifications man is placed in even nearer relations to 
other animals than in the one ordinarily received. Thus, in that re- 
tained up to the present time in the British Museum, the first order of 
the class Mammalia is Primates, including man, apes, monkeys, bab- 



FOOT-HAISTDED AND HAND-WINGED VERTEBRATES. 31 



43. There are three divisions of this sub-class ordina- 
rily recognized : the Simiadae, or monkey tribe of the 
Old World ; the Cebidae, or monkey tribe of the New 
World ; and the Lemuridae, which are found chiefly in 
the island of Madagascar, and to some extent in Africa 
and India. All these animals are inhabitants of tropical 
climates, and live chiefly on fruits, in getting which from 
trees most of them show greater agility than any other 
animals. They are disposed to gather in troops, a tree 
sometimes having nearly a hundred monkeys in its 
branches. 

44. The Simiadae are classed in three divisions: the 
apes^ which have no tails ; the baboons^ that have very 
short ones ; and the monheys^ that have long ones. I 
will notice some of the j^rominent species of each. 

45. The Chimpanzee, Fig. 1 1, which is in shape more like 




Fig. 11. — Chimpanzee. 

oons, and bats, as the different families of the order, the second order 
being Ferae, or wild beasts. Such a classification is not merely incor- 
rect, but ridiculous. 



32 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



man than any other animal, is found in the west part of 
Africa. Its height is from four to five feet. It common- 
ly goes on all-fours, but it walks occasionally on its hind- 
er hand-feet, though not with the erectness of man. Its 
ears are very large, and it has long, black, coarse hair, 
which hangs in heavy whiskers about its cheeks. It 
climbs trees readily, sometimes for observation, and some- 
times to gather food ; and it makes a nest for itself by 
twining branches of trees together, in which it spends 
much of its time. Its strength is astonishing ; it being 
able to break off branches which two men together can 
not bend. 

46. The Orang-outang, Fig. 12, is an inhabitant of the 




Fig. 12. — Orang-outang. 



islands of Borneo and Sumatra. This is the largest of 
the apes, having been known to be in some cases over 
seven feet high. Its arms are of great length, reaching 
to the ground when it is erect. It can not stand as well 



FOOT-HANDED AND HAND-WINGED VEETEBKATES. 33 

as the Chimpanzee can, for it is so bow-legged that the 
soles of the feet turn in toward each other. Like the 
Chimpanzee, it is great at climbing, in doing which its 
long arms are very serviceable. When young it is very 
teachable, and has been taught to make its own bed, and 
to manage a cup and saucer and spoon tolerably well. 
Both the Chimpanzee and the Orang-outang have a gravi- 
ty and apparent thoughtfulness which are quite laughable. 

47. There are some smaller apes of an interesting char- 
acter. The Agile Gibbon, so called from the agility with 
which it leaps from branch to branch, is a native of Su- 
matra. Its height is about three feet. A female of this 
species was some time since exhibited in London. She 
would leap over a distance of eighteen feet, and catch 
apples or nuts thrown up to her as she passed. As she 
leaped back and forth, which she did with great rapidity, 
she uttered a very loud but musical cry. She was a tame 
and gentle animal, and liked to be caressed. 

48. I will notice but two of the many species of mon- 
keys of the Old World. The Entellus, Fig. 13, is found 
in India. It preys upon serpents. In the attitude which 
you see here it steals quietly upon the serpent while it is 




Fig. 13.— Entellus. 

B 2 



34 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



asleep, and seizing it by the neck, takes it to a stone, and 
knocks its head against it till it is dead. It then throws 
the snake to the young monkeys, who play with it as a 
kitten does with a mouse killed by the old cat. It is re- 
garded with great reverence by the natives, and receives 
even divine honors from them. Splendid temples are 
dedicated to these monkeys ; there are hospitals for their 
treatment when sick ; fortunes are bequeathed for their 
support ; and though the murder of a man is often pun- 
ished only by a small fine, the killing of one of these mon- 
keys is invariably punished with death. Thus cared for, 
they abound in great numbers, and though they enter 
houses to plunder eatables, their visits are regarded as a 
great honor. 

49. The Proboscis Mon- 
key, Fig. 14, so called from 
the extraordinary projec- 
tion of its nose, is a native 
of Borneo. 

50. The baboons have 
very short tails. Their 
bodies are stout and thick- 
set. The temper of most 
of them is very ferocious, 
and Cuvier says that he 
has seen several of the Man- 
drill species die of rage. 
Those species of baboons 
that live in Asia are of a 

much milder character than those found in Africa. There 
is only one locality in Europe where any of the Pedimana 
tribe are foimd, and that is the Rock of Gibraltar. One 
species of the baboon, improperly called the Barbary Ape, 
abounds there. It is probably not a native, but was orig- 
inally introduced from the African side of the strait. 

51. It is a remarkable fact that the baboons are the 
only Mammalia that exhibit bright colors upon their 




Fig. 14. — Proboscis Monkey. 



FOOT-HANDED AND HAND-WINGED VERTEBRATES. 35 

skins. The Mandrill, Fig. 15, the largest and fiercest of 
the class, is prominent in this respect. Its colors are 




Fig. 15. — Mandrill. 

very brilliant and various. Being as tall as a man when 
erect, it presents a singular and formidable appearance. 
Its head is large, with very prominent eyebrows, and 
small, deeply-sunk eyes ; the cheek bones are enormous, 
with large prominences on it of light blue, deep purple, 
and scarlet ; its hair is an olive brown above and silvery 
gray below, but of a deep orange under the chin ; the 
ears are violet-black, and the hinder parts of its body are 
a deep scarlet. This l^ Carpenter's description. The 
colors must vary in different cases, as I find them some- 
what differently described by others. 

52. The American monkeys are different species from 
those which we find in the Old World. Some of the 
particulars in which they differ from them I will men- 
tion. They are generally much smaller. The thumb is 
a very diminutive affair, and can not be brought in op- 
position to the fingers. In some cases it is wanting. 
The nostrils are wide apart, and open sidewise, while in 
the monkeys of Asia and Africa they are near together. 



36 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



and open downward. This makes a great difference in 
the aspect of the face. The monkeys of the Old World 
have cheek-pouches — that is, their cheeks are so loose 
and bag-like that they can stow away in them quite a 
quantity of nuts and other fruits as they gather them. 
These are not seen in American monkeys. The tails of 
American monkeys are in most species very long, and in 
many of them it is used as a sort of fifth hand in climb- 
ing. They are inhabitants of the northern half of South 
America. They are especially abundant in the vast for- 
est-plains between the Orinoco and the Amazon. They 
live in trees, and pass from one^ tree to another with the 
same facility that squirrels do with us.* 

53. I will notice but three of the many species. The 
Coaita Spider Monkey, Fig. 16, uses its tail, as you see, 




. 16.— Coaita Spider Monkey. 

in climbing. It has been known to hang to a branch by 
it for some time after being killed by a shot. It uses its 
tail also to feel with, and to seize small things, such as 
eggs. For these purposes the end is destitute of hair, 
and is very sensitive. This animal is easily chilled, and 

* Animals that live thus are said to be arboreal in their habits, from 
the Latin word arbor, tree. 



FOOT-HANDED AND HAND-WINGED VEETEBRATES. 37 




Fig. 17 Marmoset. 



in cold weather it winds its tail around its body for 
warmth. 

54. The Marmosets, of which you have one species in 
Fig. 17, are distinguished from other monkeys by their 

sharp and crooked 
nails. They are very 
skillful in capturing 
insects, which form a 
part of their food. 
Mr. Wood speaks of 
one in the Zoological 
Gardens m London 
which was very busy 
in catching flies. He 
caught some for it, 
and the little crea- 
ture's eyes Avould 

sparkle with great eagerness as he saw Mr. Wood's hand 

moving toward a fly which had alighted out of its reach. 

In some of the species the tail is very elegant, from the 

different colors arranged in regular rings. 

55. The Howling Monkeys are larger than most Amer- 
ican monkeys, and are morose in disposition. They have 
a sort of hollow drum connected with the windpipe, 
which gives great power to the voice in howling. They 
howl in concert at sunrise and sunset, often in the night, 
and also when a storm is threatened. The noise is de- 
scribed by travelers as astounding. 

56. The Lemuridae, or Lemurs (Latin, Lemwes^ ghosts), 
get their name from the fact that their movements are 
very noiseless, and are made mostly in the night. They 
live in troops, like the monkeys, clinging to branches of 
trees. Their food is various — fruits, eggs, insects, and 
birds. The posterior extremities, in contrast with mon- 
keys and apes, are much longer than the anterior. The 
muzzle is pointed. The tail is commonly very long, but 
in some species is nearly wanting. The fur is usually fine 



38 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



and silky. In the island of Madagascar, where these an- 
imals most abound, there are no monkeys. In Fig. 18 




Fig. 18.— Ruffled Lemur. 



you have the Ruffled Lemur of this island. In the Grace- 
ful Loris, Fig. 19, you have a Lemur that is found in In- 
dia and Ceylon. It is 



very skillful in cap- 
turing birds, which it 
does in the night, 
when they are asleep. 
Slowly and noiseless- 
ly advancing toward 
its victim, when it gets 
within reach of it, the 
Loris puts its hand to- 
ward it with a motion 
so slow as to be al- 
most imperceptible, 

and then, with a motion quicker than sight can follow, it 

seizes its prey. 

57. I will notice but one more species of the Lemurs. 

It is one whose skin is extended in a fold, like that of 

the Flying Squirrel, between its anterior and posterior 




Fig. 19.— Graceful Loris. 



FOOT-HANDED AND HAND-WIISTGED VERTEBRATES. 39 

limbs. It is called the Flying Lemur. It has, however, 
like the Flying Squirrel, no power to -^y upward ; but 
this extension of skin merely enables it to take long 
sweeping leaps from one tree to another. It is a native 
of the Moluccas, Philippines, and other islands of the In- 
dian Archipelago. 

58. In the sub-class of Cheiroptera^ or hand-winged 
Mammals (§ 24), we have the only animals of the class 
Mammalia that can really fly, that is, which can go up- 
ward in the air. The apparatus for flying is made up of 
a very delicate skin, without hair, on a frame-work of long 
slender bones. The bones are essentially the same that 
we find in the arm and hand of man, except that most of 
them are very much longer. This you can see by ob- 
serving the skeleton of the bat in Fig. 20 in connection 




Fig. 20.— Skeleton of the Bat. 



with the skeleton of man in Fig. 1. Beginning at the 
shoulder, you see first the bone of the arm, then the fore- 
arm, and from the wrist extend the bones of the four fin- 



40 NATURAL HISTORY. 

gers enormously lengthened. If the bones of the fingers 
of man were lengthened as much in proportion to his 
size, his fingers would be about four feet long. What 
answers to a thumb in the bat is a short projection with 
a hook upon it, as you see in the figure. Wood says of 
this arrangement that, " if the fingers of a man were to 
be drawn out like wire to about four feet in length, a 
thin membrane to extend from finger to finger, and an- 
other membrane to fall from the little finger to the an- 
kles, he would make a very tolerable bat." He would 
need, however, vastly larger muscles than those which 
move his arm to work such extensive flying machinery. 

59. The wing of a bat is a more extensive and perfect 
flying apparatus than that of any bird. Hence the ex- 
ceeding rapidity of its movements. In his flight he is 
catching flies, musquitoes, and other insects. In his mode 
of getting a livelihood he is like the birds of the swallow 
tribe. 

60. The eyes of the bat are small, and his vision is un- 
doubtedly very poor. How, then, can he catch insects 
on the wing ? It is because his other senses are very 
acute. He hears quickly. Especially is this the case 
with the Long-eared Bat, Fig. 21. The organ of smell, 
too, is quite extensive, particularly in some species. 
Then, too, the membrane of the wings is fully supplied 

with nerves, and is 
exquisitely sensitive. 
To prove this, Spal- 
lanzani put out the 
eyes of some bats, 
and then let them 
loose in his room, 
across which he had 
stretched strings in 
various directions. — 
The bats in no case 
Fig, 21.— Long-eared Bat. flew agaiust them,but 




FOOT-HANDED AKD HAND- WINGED VERTEBEATES. 41 

readily avoided these and other obstacles. Of course, 
they did this with the sense of touch alone, and that 
chiefly in their wings. They instantly knew in this way 
when they were coming near something besides air. The 
senses of smell and hearing would help them to determ- 
ine whether this something was an insect or such a thing 
as a string. 

61. The bats of temperate climates are, like the frogs 
and toads, in a torpid state through the winter, this be- 
ing necessary simply because the insects upon which they 
live are gone. For this purpose they lodge themselves 
instinctively in some secret place where they will not be 
likely to be disturbed. 

62. The species of bats are very numerous. Some of 
the species in tropical climates are quite large animals. 
The Vampire Bat of South America, Fig. 22, measures 



Fig. 22. — Vampire Bat. 

two or three feet from tip to tip of the wings. It lives 
by sucking blood from different animals, which it does 
while they are asleep, and commonly without awaking 
them. The wound which it makes is very small, and yet 
it sucks from it quite a large quantity of blood. 

63. The most singular species of bat is found in the 



42 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 




Kalong Bat. 



island of Java, called the Kalong Bat. Its wings expand 
to the extent of five feet. Its head is like that of a fox, 
as you see in Fig. 23. This animal belongs to that divi- 
sion of bats which 
live principally on 
fruits. They live, 
like monkeys, in 
troops on trees. — 
The division is a 
small one com- 
pared w^ith the in- 
sect-eating bats. — 
Their wings are by 
no means as extens- 
ive in proportion 
to the size of the 
body, and they 
therefore fly more slowly, not needing the swift flight of 
the other division, as they catch no insects. As their eyes 
are large, they have not, probably, the sensitiveness in their 
wings which is so characteristic of the insect-eating bats. 

Questions. — What tribe are the Pedimana? What is the name 
usually given to them ? State the reasons for the change of name. 
Give the substance of the note in regard to classification. What are 
the three divisions of the Pedimana ? What are the three divisions 
of the Simiadae ? What is said of the Chimpanzee ? Of the Orang- 
outang ? Of the Agile Gibbon ? Of the Entellus ? Of the Probos- 
cis Monkey ? Wbat is said of the baboons ? Describe the Mandrill. 
State the differences between the American monkeys and those of the 
Old World. What is an arboreal animal ? What is said of the Co- 
aita Spider Monkey? Of the Marmosets? Of the Howling Mon- 
keys ? Describe the Lemurs and their habits. Where are they chief- 
ly found ? What is said of the Graceful Loris ? Of the Flying Le- 
mur ? Describe the flying apparatus of the Cheiroptera. How does 
its frame-work compare with that of the hand and arm of man? 
What is said of the power of this apparatus? What are the habits of 
bats ? What is said of their senses ? Give the experiment of Spal- 
lanzani. How do bats pass the winter in temperate climates ? What 
is said of the Vampire Bat ? What of the Kalong Bat ? 



CABNIVOBOUS QUADRUPEDS. 43 



CHAPTER IV. 

CARNIVOROUS QUADRUPEDS. 

64. We now come to Quadrupeds {quatuor^ four ; pes^ 
foot), four-footed Mammals. This sub-class includes most 
of the animals of any size that walk on the ground. It 
has two great divisions — the Unguiculata^ or clawed 
Quadrupeds ; and the JJngulata^ or hoofed Quadrupeds. 
In the Unguiculata there are five orders : 1. Carnivora 
{caro^ flesh, voro^ to devour). 2. Insectivora — Insect- 
eaters. 3. Rodentia {rodo^ to gnaw). 4. Edentata {e^ 
without, de7is^ tooth). 5. Marsupialia, so called on ac- 
count of a marsupium^ or pouch in the skin, in which 
the mother carries her young for some time after birth. 
The division Ungulata has two orders: 1. Pachyder- 
mata (Trax^c, pachus^ thick; 2ep/xa, derma^ skin), thick- 
skinned Quadrupeds, including elephants, horses, swine 
etc. 2. Ruminantia [rumen^ a stomach or paunch), cud- 
chewing Quadrupeds, as oxen, deer, camels, sheep, etc. 

65. The order Carnivora is divided into five families : 
1. Felida3 {felis^ cat), the cat tribe, including cats, tigers, 
lions, etc. 2. Canidse {canis^ a dog), including dogs, 
wolves, foxes, etc. 3. Mustelidse {^nustela^ a weasel), 
weasels, otters, etc. 4. Ursidae {iirsus^ a bear), the bear 
family, bears, raccoons, etc. 5. Phocidse {(jxoKrj, 2>^^oke^ a 
seal), seals, walruses, etc. 

66. Many of the animals which we have already no- 
ticed have the power of living in whole or in part upon 
animal food, as, for example, man and some of the mon- 
key tribe. But they can digest vegetable food also, and 
can even subsist wholly upon it. Even those which live 
on animal food alone, as some of the bats, eat insects and 
worms, and not the flesh of the larger animals, on which 




44 NATUEAL HISTOEY. 

the true Carnivora, with few exceptions, entirely sub- 
sist. 

67. The animals of this order are readily distinguished 
from others by their teeth, which are formed for seizing, 
tearing, and cutting flesh, while those animals that eat 
grains and grass have their principal teeth formed for 
grinding. In Fig. 24 you have a representation of one 

side of the jaws of a carniv- 
orous animal. The very long 
pointed teeth are called ca- 
nine teeth, because they are so 
observable in the dog. The 
teeth in rear of these are most- 
ly cutting teeth, the upper 
and lower going a little past 
each other so as to cut like 
■^^^•^^- scissors. Herbivorous (herb 

or vegetable eating) animals have grinding teeth in this 

rear part of the jaw. 

68. The digestive organs of this, order are conformed 
to the nature of their food. As this is similar in quality 
to the substance of the animal itself, it does not require 
any complicated process to bring it into a fit state to 
nourish it. The stomach is therefore very simple and 
small, and the intestines are short ; while in the grain 
and grass eating animals the digestive apparatus is com- 
plicated and extensive, it requiring, of course, much ma- 
chinery to change into blood substances which are so un- 
like it as these articles of food are. I shall speak of this 
subject again when I come to the herbivorous Quadru- 
peds. 

69. Some of the families of this order are not wholly 
carnivorous. And just so far as any admit vegetable 
food into their diet we see a corresponding variation from 
the true carnivorous character of the teeth and the di- 
gestive organs. The teeth, for example, lose to a greater 
or less extent their tearing and cutting character. 



CAEiS^IYOKOUS QUADEUPEDS. 45 

70. The animals of the first family, the Felidae, or Cat 
tribe, are wholly carnivorous. They never eat vegetable 
food in their wild state, and eat but little of it when do- 
mesticated, as we know in the case of the common cat. 
The Felidse, then, may be considered the typical'^ family 
of this order. The animals which it includes are the most 
destructive of all the Mammalia, and the body is framed 
in every respect to conform to the carnivorous propensi- 
ty. It has no unnecessary bulkiness, but is made as small 
as it can be, consistent with the required strength. Bone, 
and muscle, and sinew are w^ell packed together, with 
but little fat. The limbs are short, for these animals 
need not to run so much as to leap in taking their prey. 
They have cushions or pads on their feet, so that they 
may approach their victims noiselessly. As they walk, 
their sharp claws lie back above these pads in their 
sheaths ; but when they wish to use them, they thrust 
them forth from these sheaths by a very curious muscu- 
lar apparatus. Their senses are acute, and they can see 
by night as well as by day. Their whiskers are very 
sensitive organs of touch, Avhich are of service in passing 
through thickets or narrow places. The tongue is cover- 
ed with almost horny points, directed backward. These, 
which every one has observed in the cat, are so large and 
strong in the lion and tiger, that a smart stroke of the 
tongue would strip off the skin from a man's hand. The 
chief use of these points is to enable the animal to scrape 
off all the flesh from a bone. The cat uses her tongue as 

* This word, which is often used in works on Zoology, I will ex- 
plain. In every natural group of animals there is always some one 
kind which exhibits the characteristics common to the group with 
more distinctness and perfection than any of the rest, and this is said, 
therefore, to be the type of the group. Thus, each genus has its typ- 
ical species, each family its typical genus, each order its typical fam- 
ily, and each class its typical order. Then there is more or less vari- 
ation from the type^ and those which vary considerably from it are 
styled aberrant forms, from erro, to wander, and a6, from. So we 
speak of aberrant species, genera, etc. 



46 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



a sort of curry-comb to clean her coat, and undoubtedly 
this member is put to the same use by other animals of 
this class in proportion to their cleanliness. 

71. I will now proceed to notice some of the animals 
of this family. At the head of it, and of the wild beasts 
generally, stands the Lion. He is commonly called the 




Fig. 25. — Lion, Lioness, and Cubs. 

king of beasts, both for his noble and commanding air, 
and the power concentrated in his comparatively small 
frame. No animal, however large, dare attack him. He 
is found in Africa, and on the Continent of Asia, in In- 
dia, Persia, and Arabia. He preys upon antelopes, heif- 
ers, zebras, gnoos, etc. There is such prodigious strength 
in the muscles of his neck and jaws that he can carry off 
a heifer as easily as a cat can a rat. He generally waits 
in ambush for his victim, or creeps like a cat insidiously 
and noiselessly toward it, and, when sufficiently near, at 
one bound secures it with his teeth and claws, uttering, 
at the same time, his terrific roar. He is not properly 



CARNIVOROUS QUADRUPEDS. 



47 



styled king of the forest^ for he frequents burning desert 
plains, or places covered with low brushwood. He com- 
monly sleeps in the day, and at night rouses to search 
for prey. A thunder-storm, so common in the night in 
Southern Africa, seems to excite him to unwonted activ- 
ity, and, minghng his roar with that of the thunder, he 
rushes upon his terrified and confused prey without his 
usual stealthiness. The Lioness is smaller than the Lion, 
as you see in Fig. 25 (p. 46), and is destitute of the mane 
which gives him so dignified an appearance. The cubs, 
of which there are commonly from two to four, are as 
playful as kittens. Mr. Wood says that he had two cubs, 
larger than cats, placed in his arms, and found them " al- 
most unpleasantly playful." 

'72. The Tiger, Fig. 26, is found only in Asia, chiefly in 




Fig. 26. — riger. 

Hindostan. It is a splendid animal, three feet high and 
eight long, having black stripes on a ground of reddish 
yellow. Tiger-hunts are among the favorite sports of In- 



48 



NATUEAL HISTOKY. 



dia. The hunters go forth armed with rifles, in a sort of 
carriage or frame on the backs of elephants trained for 
the purpose. There is much danger in the sport, for the 
Tiger often springs up upon the elephant, and reaches 
the hunters. 

73. The Leopard is a native of Africa, India, and some 
of the Indian islands. It is a very active and graceful 
animal. It is arboreal (§ 52) in its habits, and monkeys 
form a part of its prey. It has black spots in rosette 
shape, on a ground of pale yellow. The Ounce, a native 
of India, has sometimes been confounded with the Leop- 
ard ; but it has less regular marks, a rougher coat, and 
a tail almost busliy. 

74. The Jaguar of America, Figure 27, is much like 

__ ^ the Leopard of the 

-^ I " ' Old World, but it is 

larger. It is arbo- 
real, and chases the 
monkeys which are 
so abundant in the 
forests of South 
America. The Pu- 
ma, called usually in 
this country the Pan- 
ther, is another ani- 
mal of the same sort, 
f o u n d extensively 
diffused in both parts 
of the American con- 
tinent. It is some- 
times termed the 
American lion, from 
its uniformity of color, which is a silvery fawn. 

75. Of the Lynxes there are several species, some in 
Europe, some in Asia and Africa, and others in America. 
The Canada Lynx, Fig. 28 (p. 49), is remarkable for its 
gait, going by successive leaps with the back arched. 




Fig. 27. — Jaguar. 



CAENIVOROUS QUADRUPEDS. 



49 




There is a very large 
trade in the skins of 
this animal. 

Y6. The Civet 
Cats, which are found 
in the northern part 
of Africa, chiefly in 
Abyssinia, are all re- 
markable for a poncli 
near the tail contain- 
ing a perfume which 
is quite an article of 
commerce. A rep- 
resentation of one spe- 
cies you have m Fig, 
29. 

77. The Ichneu- 
mons are singular an- 
imals. Having long 
bodies and short 

Fig. 29.-Civet Cat. |-^^g^ ^^lej CrCCp iutO 

very narrow places, and run their slender snouts into 
every crevice in search of their food, which consists of 
snakes, lizards, crocodiles' eggs, etc. The Egyptian Ich- 
neumon, or Pharaoh's Rat, Fig. 30, is often domesticated 



Fig. 28. — Canada Lynx. 





. 30. — Egyptian Ichneumon. 

in houses in Egypt, that it may destroy the snakes and 
other reptiles that so often infest them in that country. 

78. The domestic Cat is so well known that I need 

to say little about it. The species has many varieties, 

though not as many as there are among the dogs. The 

Cat has a strong attachment to localities, but seldom man- 

C 




50 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

ifests that attachment to persons which is so strong a 
characteristic of most dogs. The domestic Cat was for- 
merly thought to be the same with the Wild Cat, but they 
are proved to be distinct species. 
The difference in their tails may 
be seen in Fig. 31, that of the do- 
mestic Cat, 1, being long and ta- 
pering, and that of the Wild Cat, 
Fi^. 3i.-cat3' Tails. 2, short and bushy. 

Questions. — What are Quadrupeds ? What are the two grand divi- 
sions of this sub-class ? Give the names of the orders of the Ungui- 
culata, and their derivations. Give those of the orders of the Ungu- 
lata, and their derivations. What are the families of the order Car- 
nivora? What is said of the Carnivora in comparison with the ani- 
mals already noticed ? What is said of the teeth of the Carnivora 
and of the Herbivora ? What is said of the difference in their digest- 
ive organs? What is said of some families of the Carnivora which 
are not wholly carnivorous ? What is the typical family of this order ? 
What is the meaning of ti/pical, and of aberrant f What is said of 
the structure of the Felidse ? Of what use are the pads on their feet? 
What is said of their senses ? What of their tongues ? Where is the 
Lion found ? Describe his appearance and habits. What is said of 
the Lioness ? What is said of the Leopard ? Of the Jaguar ? Of 
the Puma ? Of the Lynxes ? Of the Civet Cats ? Of the Ichneu- 
mons ? Of the Cat ? 



CHAPTER V. 

CAENIVOEOUS QUADRUPEDS — C07ltinued. 

'79. The second family of carnivorous Quadrupeds is 
the dog family, including dogs, wolves, foxes, etc. The 
dog species in this family exhibits more striking varieties 
than any other species of animal. There can hardly be 
a wider difference between two animals of the same fam- 
ily than we see between King Charles's Dog, Fig. 32, and 
the fierce Bloodhound, Fig. 33 (p. 51). Then we have 
the large and noble Newfoundland Dog, the stout Mas- 



CARNIVOROUS QUADRUPEDS. 



51 



tiff, the slender and 
swift Greyhound, the 
pugnacious Bulldog, 
the brisk little Ter- 
rier, the Foxhound, 
Beagle, and Pointer 
used in hunting, etc. 
The differences, you 
observe, are as wide 

in disposition and habits as in form, size, and color. 

Now all these varieties, it is agreed by all zoologists, 




Fig. 32. — King Charles's Dog. 




Fig. 33.— Bloodhound. 

came from one source, though exactly what was the char- 
acter of the original undomesticated dog is not settled. 

80. The cause of the w^ide range of varieties in this 
species is the influence of domestication referred to in 
§ 40. The degree of domestication is greater in the dog 
than in any other case. No other animal is so thorough- 
ly the companion of man. Cuvier says that the dog is 
the only animal that has followed man through every re- 
gion of the earth. His attachment to his master is pe- 
culiar, and is seldom seen in other animals in the same 
degree. The contrast between the cat and the dog in 



52 NATURAL IIISTOKY. 

this respect is very marked, the cat being much attached 
to place, and Httle, if any, to persons. 

81. The diiferences between some of the varieties of 
dogs are greater than those existing between different 
sjoecies of some animals. The Greyhound and the Bull- 
dog, for example, are more unlike than the Lion and the 
Tiger, two species of the cat tribe, and vastly more than 
the Tiger and the Leopard. But the characteristics of 
these species remain fixed age after age, because the in- 
fluence of domestication is not brought to bear upon 
them. Even the markings on the skins of such wild an- 
imals remain unchanged from generation to generation. 
Stripes and patches are therefore, in some of them, made 
the basis of distinguishing different species, while in the 
domesticated animals nothing is more common than 
changes of color. 

82. The differences between the varieties of man are 
no greater than those betAveen the varieties of the dog, 
the companion of man. And if domestication can pro- 
duce these varieties in the one case, they surely can in 
the other, where it has a still greater influence. The 
doubts, then, existing in the minds of some in regard to 
the single origin of the human race are unfounded, and 
the account given in the Bible is proved true by an ob- 
servation of facts. 

83. Although the Wolf, Fig. 34 (p. 53), belongs to the 
dog family, dogs seem to be its natural enemies. While 
the smaller flee from it in terror, the stronger pursue 
and kill it. And yet it is thought by some that the orig- 
inal dog was a Wolf; and it is asserted that, though this 
animal is so fierce, it can be tamed when young, and is 
then as susceptible of attachment to man as the dog is. 
Wolves commonly himt in packs or bands, and are very 
crafty in their modes of taking their prey. Like other 
wild beasts, they are exterminated as man cuts down the 
forests and builds his habitations. In the early settle- 
ment of this country they abounded even in the states on 



CARNIYOEOUS QUADRUPEDS, 53 




Fig. 34.— Wolf. 

the Atlantic coast, and they were not wholly extermin- 
ated till recently. The story of Putnam and the Wolf 
is familiar to every one. They were extirpated in En- 
gland about 1350, in Scotland in 1600, and Ireland in 
1700. They still abound in various parts of Europe and 
Northern Asia, and destroy great numbers of domesti- 
cated animals, as is shown by a report made in 1822 to 
the Russian government in regard to the district of Li- 
vonia, a tract of country about 250 miles long by 150 
broad. The animals stated as having been destroyed by 
wolves are as follows : horses, 1841 ; cattle, 1807 ; calves, 
733 ; sheep, 15,182 ; lambs, 726 ; goats, 2545 ; kids, 183 ; 
swine, 4190 ; young pigs, 312 ; dogs, 703 ; geese, 673 ; 
fowls, 1243. The Wolf is a gaunt but strong animal, 
with a skulking gait, and his aspect is marked by min- 
gled ferocity, cunning, and cowardice. There are sev- 
eral species of wolves, especially in America, but their 
habits and character are very much the same. 

84. The Fox, Fig. 35 (p. 54), is characterized chiefly 
by its pointed muzzle and its bushy tail. Its cunning is 
also proverbial. It is usually concealed in the daytime 
either in a burrow that it has made, or in one that it has 



54 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 35.— Fox. 

found, and comes forth stealthily at night in search of its 
prey, which consists of fowls, rabbits, etc. It is a great 
robber of the hen-roost. Though a slender animal, the 
Fox is very muscular, and has great speed. This, with 
the cunning which it exercises in its various expedients 
for escape, renders the fox-chase very exciting, and it is 
one of the grand sports of English noblemen. Besides 
the common Fox, there are many other species. The 
Arctic Fox, which is found only in the extreme north, is 
remarkable for the changes which its hair exhibits. In 
summer it is of a dusky ash color, but in winter it turns 
white, and becomes fuller and thicker, even covering the 
soles of the feet. 

85. The Jackal, Fig. 36 (p. 55), is found in North Af- 
rica, Persia, and India. It is somewhat like the Fox in 
appearance, though it has not so bushy a tail. It is like 
the wolf, however, in its habits. Jackals, like wolves, 
hunt in packs. They are concealed during the day, and 
come forth at night filling the air with their shrieks, 
which all describe as being horrid. They are very use- 
ful in the Eastern countries as scavengers, devouring the 
offal which the uncleanly inhabitants cast out of their 



CAElSnVOEOUS QUADRUPEDS. 



55 




Fig. 36.~Jackal. 



houses, and thus often 
save them from pesti- 
lential diseases. 

86. The Hyaenas, of 
which one species is 
represented in Figure 
37, are found in Asia 
and Africa. They are 
generally classified in 
the dog family, though 
there is some ques- 
tion as to the place in 
which they belong. — 
They are exceeding- 
ly ferocious, and live 
chiefly upon animals 
which they find dead. 
They will even devour 
the human body, and 
are seen in large num- 
bers in the neighbor- 
hood of armies, ready 
to eat the bodies of 
the slain. They are 
among beasts what 
the vultures are among birds, and, like the jackals, are 
very useful as scavengers. The rear parts of the Hyaena 
are small, and hence its shambling gait ; but there is 
great strength in the fore part of its body and in its jaws. 
It can readily crush with its teeth the thigh bone of 
an ox. 

87. The Weasel family (mustelidae) includes the Wea- 
sels, Martens, Skunks, Otters, etc. These animals are, for 
the most part, quite small, but they are very sanguinary 
in their habits. They generally strike the neck of their 
victims just behind the ear, piercing the large blood-ves- 
sels, or drive their teeth into the skull. When they have 




Fig. ST. — Striped Hyajna. 



56 NATURAL HISTORY. 

once seized tlieir prey, Ayhich is a rabbit, or rat, or bird, 
or some reptile, they never let go their hold. Few ani- 
mals equal them in agility and address. As they have 
such long, slender, flexible bodies, and creep stealthily 
toward their prey on their short legs, they have been 
sometimes called vermiform^ worm-like, Carnivora. They 
are nocturnal in their habits, spending the day concealed 
in hollow trees, holes in walls, or in burrows, and ghd- 
ing forth at night after their prey. Some of the most 
beautiful furs are obtained from this family, as the Sable 
and the Ermine. Most of these animals have a strong 
odor. Some of them are exceedingly offensive. 

88. The common AYeasel, Fig. 38, exemplifies the gen- 
eral shape of the whole 
tribe, of which it is the 
smallest. This animal 
is so effective in exterm- 
inating rats and mice, 

1- that the farmer can well 
afford to let him steal 

Fig. 38.— Weasel. t , i 

now and then an egg or 
a chicken, which it will never do so long as any rats or 
mice are to be found on the premises. 

89. The fur of the Sable is very valuable. Great num- 
bers of this animal are taken by hunters in Siberia, and 
are a considerable article of the Russian trade. The fur 
of the Pine Marten comes next in value. Many other 
furs are furnished by this family. The fur of the Ermine 
was formerly used in England to line the robes of judges 
and magistrates, and was, therefore, often referred to fig- 
uratively as emblematical of the purity which should be- 
long to such persons. * 

90. The Skunk genus, of which there are several spe- 
cies, found only in America, belongs to this family. The 
common Skunk is about the size of a cat. The offensive 
fluid which it can throw upon any that attack it is con- 
tained in two sacs near the tail. Like the Woodchuck, 




CARNIVOROUS QUADRUPEDS. 57 

in the Northern States it retires to its burrow in the au- 
tumn to sleep through the winter. 

91. The Otters form a somewhat aberrant genus of 
the Weasel family. They differ from the other genera 
in being aquatic, their prey being for the most part in 
the water. Their paws are fitted for swimming, which 
they do with great celerity. Their fur is close, short, 
and fine, so that it may not interfere with their progress 
in the water, and they are provided with a nictitating 
(winking) membrane which can be drawn over the eye 
for defense, it being transparent enough to allow the an- 
imal to see through it. There is considerable resem- 
blance in these animals to the seals soon to be noticed. 
There is one species found on the nortliAvest coast of 
America, and on the opposite or northeast coast-of Asia, 
which has this resemblance strongly marked. Its tail is 
short, and its hind feet form very broad paddles, and are 
situated far back for convenience in swimming. 

Questions. — What are included in the second family of the Carniv- 
ora ? What is said of the varieties of the Dog ? What is said of the 
influence of domestication ? How are the Dog and Cat contrasted ? 
How does the difference between the varieties of dogs compare with 
that between the species of some animals? What is said in this con- 
nection of the varieties of the human race ? Describe the Wolf and 
its habits. What is said of its relation to the Dog? What of its ex- 
termination? Of its ravages? What are the characteristics and 
habits of the Fox ? What is said of the fox-chase ? For what is the 
Arctic Fox remarkable ? What is said of the Jackal ? What are 
included in the Weasel family? What is said of their structure and 
habits? What is said of the common Weasel? What is said of the 
furs that come from this family ? What is said of the Skunk ? What 
of the Otters ? 

C2 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CARNIVOROUS QUADRUPEDS — C07iclllded, 

92. The family of Ursidae, the Bear tribe, includes the 
Bears, Raccoons, Badgers, etc. These are said to be 
Plantigrade animals {planta^ sole, and gradior^l walk), 
because, like man, they apply the sole of the foot to the 
ground in walking. The families of the Carnivora al- 
ready noticed are, on the other hand, said to be Digiti- 
grade {digitus^ finger or toe, and gradior)^ because they 
walk on their toes ; the bone which corresponds to the 
heel-bone in man really extending quite up the leg. You 
can see how this is if you compare the skeleton of the 
camel, which is a Digitigrade animal, with that of man, 
in Figs. 1 and 3. To make the comparison clear, begin 
at the hip or shoulder joint of the camel, and go down to 
the feet, observing the corresponding bones in man. 

93. Although this family is placed among the Carniv- 
ora, most of the species live partly on vegetable food, and 
some live almost entirely upon it. They may be said to 
be nearly, if not quite, omnivorous {omnis^ all, and voro^ 
to eat). Most of them are expert in climbing. They 
conceal themselves in caves, holes, and hollow trees ; and 
it is in such places that they spend the winter in a state 
of partial torpidity. The genus Ursus, or Bear, is the 
type of the family. There are eight species : three in Eu- 
rope — one of which, the Polar Bear, is common also in 
America ; one in the mountains of India ; one in Java ; 
one in Thibet, and three in IN'orth America. The body 
and limbs of the Bear are massive, and are covered with 
shaggy hair. Its ^ve toes have strong claws, suited to 
digging. In very cold countries bearskins are of great 
use in making coverlets and articles of clothing. Leath- 



CAENIVOEOUS QUADEUPEDS. 



59 



er, also, is made from them for harnesses. The Brown 
Bear of N^orthern Europe yields so many benefits to the 
people of Lapland that they call it " the dog of God." 
94. The Grizzly Bear of North America, Fig. 39, is 




mi 

Fig. 39.— -Grizzly Bear. 

the most fierce and powerful of the Bears. Among the 
Indians it is regarded a great feat to kill one of them, 
and he who does this is permitted to wear a necklace 
of its claws as a decoration. Although very clumsy, it 
climbs trees readily, which it does to get at the honey in 
the nests of wild bees. It lives on roots, berries, and 
juicy plants, and, when it can do so, will devour a pig, a 
sheep, or a calf. 

95. The Polar Bear, Fig. 40 (p. 60), is entirely white, 
except the claws and the tip of the nose, which are black. 
It lives chiefly upon seals, which it hunts both in the wa- 
ter and on the ice. With its stout claws, and its long 
hair about its feet, it runs rapidly over the smoothest ice, 
and even climbs up the sides of icebergs. Sometimes 
these bears float ofl* to sea on fields of ice, and in this 



60 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 40.^Polar Bear. 

way they have been known to emigrate from Greenland 
to Iceland, and there find luxurious living in the flocks 
and herds of the inhabitants, a change from their custom- 
ary seal diet which was very grateful to them. 

96. The other animals of this family which I shall no- 
tice are much smaller, and belong to genera more or less 

aberrant. The Rac- 
coon, Figure 41, is 
about the size of a 
Fox. Like the Bear, 
it has sharp claws 
and climbs trees. It 
sleeps in its hole by 
day, and prowls at 
night for its food, 
which consists of 
small quadrupeds, 
birds, eggs, insects. 
Fig. 41.— Raccoon. roots, ctc. It is Very 




CARNIVOROUS QUADRUPEDS. 



61 




dexterous in opening oysters. It bites off the hinge, and 
scrapes out the oyster with its paw. 

97. The Badger, Fig. 42, is found throughout Europe 

and Asia. It has 
^ ^ often been made the 

subject of a cruel 
Jatu, - , sport, teasing with 

dogs, and hence the 
common term "bad- 
gering." Its food is 
various. It is very 
fond of honey, and 
attacks the nests of 
w^ild bees, w^hich it 
does with impuni- 

Fig.42.-Badger. ^^ . f^^ j^g ^^1X1 is 

so tough and its hair is so thick that the bees "might as 
well sting a barber's block." Its hair is extensively used 
in making brushes, and the skin is used for holsters and 
the coverings of traveling trunks. There is an American 
Badger somewhat like that of the Old World. 

98. The Wolverine, or Glutton, Fig. 43, is a native of 

the Arctic regions of 
both continents. It 
has been called the 
Quadruped Vulture, 
because it sometimes 
preys on the dead 
bodies of animals. It 

±ig. 43.— Wolverine. does great damage 

to the fur trade. When it finds the hunter's traps set 
for the martens, it takes the bait, which is a bit of veni- 
son or a partridge's head, or, if there be martens in the 
traps, it tears them in pieces, and buries them here and 
there in the snow. It is said that the Wolverines do not 
eat the martens, but the cunning foxes on the watch read- 
ily scent them out and devour them. 




62 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 




99. The Kinkajoii, Fig. 44, is found in South America. 

It has been called 
the Honey Bear, be- 
cause it is so fond of 
attacking the nests 
of the wild bee, lick- 
ing out the honey 
from the cells with 

Fig. 44.~Kinkajou. j^g Jo^jg tongUC. It 

is also very expert with its tongue in catching flies and 
other insects. Its tail it uses, like the Spider Monkey of 
the same country, in climbing. It is easily tamed, and is 
as playful as a cat. 

100. The family Phocidoe {(pcoxn^ phoJce^ a seal) are 
Quadrupeds, and yet they are fitted to live in water as 
well as on the land. There was an approach to this in 
the Otters, § 91. Seals and other animals having a sim- 
ilar mixture of terrestrial and aquatic habits, are often 
termed am2Jhibious animals, from a/z^i, amphi^ both ; 
/3toc, hios^ life. 

101. The limbs of the Seal are like paddles. The arm 
and forearm of the anterior limbs are very short, so that 
the paw extends but little from the body. The paw is 
made of what corresponds to the finger-bones in man, 
covered with a skin which stretches between the fingers, 
so as to resemble the webbed feet of swimming birds. 
In giving the backward stroke in swimming the fingers 
are spread out, but in the forward stroke they are brought 
together. The hinder limbs are directed backward, so 

as to look very much 
like a tail at the end 
of the tapering body, 
as seen in Fig. 45. In 
swimming, it uses the 
fore paws as paddles, 
and the hinder ones. 
Fig. 45.— Seal. with an up and down 




CAElSnVOEOUS QUADRUPEDS. 63 

motion, both as a sculling and steering oar. On land or 
ice the movements of the Seal are very awkward, it being 
carried along by the fore paws, while the hinder feet are 
dragged along. Its body is covered with a glossy fur, 
closely set to the skin, so as not to interfere with its 
swimming, which it performs with great celerity. The 
nostrils and the ears have valves, which the animal can 
close when it goes under water, where it can, like the 
Whale, remain for some length of time. 

102. The Seal is very useful to man. The many uses 
to which it is appropriated by the Greenlanders are thus 
spoken of by Crantz, a Danish traveler : '' Its flesh sup- 
plies them with their most palatable and substantial 
food ; the fat furnishes them with oil for lamplight, 
chamber and kitchen fire ; and whoever sees their hab- 
itations presently finds that, even if they had a superflui- 
ty of wood, it would be of no use — they can use noth- 
ing but oil in them. They also mollify their dry food, 
mostly fish, with oil ; and, finally, they barter it for all 
kinds of necessaries with the factors. They can sew bet- 
ter with fibres of the Seal's sinews than with thread or 
silk ; of the skins of the entrails they make window-cur- 
tains for their tents, and shirts ; part of the bladder they 
use as a float to their harpoons ; and they make oil-flasks 
of the stomach. Neither is the blood wasted, but is boil- 
ed with other ingredients and eaten as soup. Of the 
skin of the Seal they stand in the greatest need, because 
they must cover with seal-skins both the large and small 
boats in which they travel and &eek their provisions. 
They must also cut out of them their thongs and straps, 
and cover their tents with them, without which they 
could not subsist in summer. No man, therefore, can 
pass for a right Greenlander who can not catch Seals. 
This is the ultimate end they aspire at in all their device 
and labor from their childhood up." 

103. Seals exist in almost every quarter of the globe, 
but they are mostly found in the temperate and frozen 



64 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



portions, especially the latter. There are many species. 
The common Seal, Fig. 45 (p. 62), is from fom- to five feet 
long, and its weight is sometimes over 200 pounds. Its 
head is romided, and it has long stiff whiskers. Dr. 
Kane's description of its appearance and habits is very 
graphic. In some positions it has the appearance of a 
dog. It has " a countenance between the Dog and the 
Ape— an expression so like humanity that it makes gun- 
murderers hesitate." It often rolls and wriggles about 
on the ice in the most grotesque manner, looking some- 
times like an immense snail, then like a dog, and again 
like a couching hunter. 

104. The Elephant Seal, Fig. 46, is the largest known 

species. It is from 



twenty to thirty feet 
long, a full grown 
male yielding about 
seventy gallons of oil. 
This Seal is found 
in the Atlantic, Pa- 
cific, and Southern 
Oceans. It lives in 
troops, migrating to- 
ward the tropics in 
_ winter, and return- 

Fig. 46.— Elephant Seal. ing toward the south 

pole in summer. It has its name on account of the long 
snout, which is a little like the proboscis of the Elephant, 
and more like that of the Tapir. When enraged, it thrusts 
this forward, at the same time snorting loudly. Though 
a formidable-looking animal, it never attacks man, but 
only makes a show of its large teeth to frighten him. It 
is sought after for its oil, and for its skin, which is much 
used in making stout and thick harness. The Fur Seal, 
found in the same quarters of the globe, has been here- 
tofore largely taken for its skin, but it has been much 
thinned off, as the number taken amounted sometimes to 
over a million in a year. 




CARNIVOEOUS QUADRUPEDS. 



65 




Fig. 47.— Walrus. 



105. The Walrus, Fig. 47, is an aberrant species. In 
general form and habits it is like the larger Seals. Its 

chief peculiarity is the 
great length of the ca- 
nine teeth of the upper 
jaw, sometimes reach- 
ing to two feet. These 
tusks are of service in 
defense,in progression, 
and in gathering its 
food. It resists with 
them the attacks of 
the Polar Bear ; it uses 
them as hooks in clam- 
bering up rocks and 
icebergs, and it draws up with them the seaweed which 
is a part of its food. It is found in the Arctic regions of 
both hemispheres, and is sought after for its oil and its 
tusks. 

Questions. — What are included in the family of Ursidoe ? Why are 
they called Plantigrade animals? What are Digitigrade animals? 
How far are the Ursidos carnivorous ? What is an omnivorous ani- 
mal? What are the habits of this family? What is the type-genus 
of the family ? How many species are there of this genus, and where 
are they found ? What is said of their structure ? What of their useful- 
ness to man ? What is said of the Grizzly Bear ? What of the Polar 
Bear? What are some of the aberrant species of the Ursidaa ? What 
is said of the Raccoon? Of the Badger? Of the Wolverine? Of 
the Kinkajou ? What are the Phocido3 ? Why are they called am- 
phibious ? Describe the structure and habits of Seals. What is said 
of their usefulness to man ? Where are they found ? Describe the 
common Seal. What is said of the Elephant Seal? Of the Fur 
Seal? Of the Walrus? 



66 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER VII. 

IXSECT-EATING, RODEIST, TOOTHLESS, AND MARSUPIAL 
QUADRUPEDS. 

106. We now come to the second order of Quadru- 
peds, the Insectivora, or insect-eating Quadrupeds. Al- 
though, as we saw in Chapter III., many of the Bat and 
Monkey tribes Hve chiefly on insects, it is in this order 
that we find the most com23lete adaptation to this kind 
of food. The teeth of the Insectivora are not cutting 
and tearing, as are those of the Carnivora, but they have 
rounded points for the purpose of crushing the hard cov- 
erings of insects. Most of them hve chiefly under ground, 
as the Mole ; and those which inhabit cold countries are 
in a state of torpor through the winter. Their vocation 
seems to be to keep within bounds the worm and insect 
tribes that are found in the soil, which would otherwise 
be exceedingly destructive to the vegetables on which 
man so much dejDcnds for food. 

107. Of this order there are four famihes: 1. Moles, 
which pass their whole lives in burrows. 2. Shrews, a 
sort of carnivorous mice, which are very common through- 
out Europe, but of which only a few species are found 
in America. 3. The Hedgehogs, found in Europe, Asia, 

4. The Banxrings, which inhabit the larger 
islands of the Eastern 
Archipelago. 

108. The common 
Euro]3ean Mole, Fig. 
48, lives in the same 
manner as the Mole 
of this country, al- 
pig. 48.— Mole. though it is a differ- 



and Africa. 




INSECT-EATING QUADEUPEDS. 



61 




ent species. The eyes of the Mole are very small, as it 
has but little use for vision ; but its hearing and smell 
are very acute. Its fur is fine and soft, and it will not 
retain a particle of dirt, although continually in contact 
with it. Its fore paws, mounted with strong claws, are 
powerful instruments for digging. In Fig. 49 you have 
the bones of one of these paws, 
which are very large, and are 
worked by strong muscles. The 
head is constructed for digging 
also, the frame of the nose be- 
ing wholly bone, instead of part 
Fig.49.-rorepawoftheMoie. g^gtle, as in most Other ani- 
mals. The hinder part of the body has not the great 
strength of the fore part, for the hind feet are not em- 
ployed in digging. 

109. The plan of a mole-hill is very curious. It has, as 
you see in the plan in Fig. 50, two circular galleries, one 

above the other, con- 
nected together by five 
passages. In the very 
centre of the mound, 
and on a level with the 
ground around it, is a 
circular apartment 
where the Mole sleeps. This is connected by three pas- 
sages with the upper gallery, and not at all with the lower 
one. Then there are passages running out from the lower 
gallery, and into one of these opens a passage from the 
circular chamber. Just this plan has been instinctively 
adopted ever since the first mole was created. The food 
of the Mole is chiefly worms and insects, which it gath- 
ers by burrowing. The good which the Mole does to 
the farmer in this way is probably much greater than 
any harm which his burrowing may sometimes occasion. 

110. The Shrew Mouse, Fig. 51 (p. 68), is so called be- 
cause it is so much like a Mouse, but it is readily distin- 




, 50.— Mole-hill. 



68 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 





guished from it by 
its long snout, which 
it uses in grubbing 
the earth in search 
of worms and in- 
sects. The Water 
Shrew dives and 
Fig. 5i.-shrew Mouse. swims Avith great Ce- 

lerity, and lives on the grubs of aquatic insects, which it 
digs out of the mud with its snout. 

111. The Hedgehog, Fig. 52, is the only animal in En- 
gland that has its 
skin armed with 
spikes. These are 
its means of defense. 
When attacked, it 
rolls itself up, and 
such is the arrange- 

Fig. 52.~Hedgehog, ^^^^^^^ ^f ^j^^^^ gpjj^^^ 

that the tightening of the skin makes them all stand out. 
A dog or a fox will not touch it then. Its food is in- 
sects, snails, frogs, snakes, roots, etc. Dr. Buckland put 
a hedgehog in a box with a snake. It gave the snake 
several quick bites in succession, rolling itself up after 
each bite. When the snake was sufficiently disabled, 
the hedgehog ate it leisurely as one would eat a radish, 
beginning at the tail. In winter this animal lies torpid 
in a hole lined v/ith grass and moss, and if discovered 
looks like a ball of leaves, these having become fastened 
to its spikes as it rolled itself among them. 

112. The Banxrings diffi^r from the other families of 
this order in being arboreal in their habits, ascending 
trees with the agility of Squirrels, which animals they re- 
semble in general appearance, but are easily distinguish- 
ed from them by their sharp muzzles. 

113. The opder Rodentia, or Gnawing Quadrupeds, has 
eight families: 1. Squirrels. 2. Marmots. 3. Rats and 



EODENT QUADRUPEDS. 69 

Mice. 4. Beavers. 5. Porcupines. 6. Guinea Pigs. 7. 
Chinchillas. 8. Hares. This order contains about three 
hundred species, and is the most generally distributed of 
all the orders of terrestrial Mammals. Its species are 
found in all quarters of the world, a few of them even in 
Australia. The furs of some of them are very valuable, 
as the Beavers, the Chinchillas, and the Gray Squirrels. 
114. The grand peculiarity of this order is in their 
gnawing teeth. These are in front, two in each jaw, and 
they are peculiarly constructed. The front covering of 
the tooth is enamel, and its rear portion, that is, the body 
of the tooth, is ivory, which is by no means as hard as 
enamel. Observe the effect of this arrangement. As 
the upper and lower teeth are brought together in gnaw- 
ing, the enamel does not wear away as fast as the ivory, 
because it is harder. The thin enamel, therefore, always 
presents a sharp chiseling edge above the level of the 
ivory. No other class of animals has this peculiarity. 
These teeth are used for different purposes, as, for exam- 
ple, by Squirrels in opening the shells of nuts, and by 
Rats in making holes in wood. The teeth of other Mam- 
malia have a limit to their growth, but not so with these 
front teeth of tlie Rodents. These grow continually, but 
are kept always of the same length by the wear of the 
gnawing operation. If, therefore, one of them be lost, 
the one opposite will attain a great length. In Fig. 53 
you see the lower jaw of a rabbit in 
Avhich the two teeth are very long 
because the upper teeth were lost. 
A Rodent in such a plight is essen- 
tially disabled, and may die of starv- 

Fig. 53.— Overgrown Teeth atiou. 

of Rabbit. ^^^^ rpj^^ ^^j^^^, ^^^^1^ j^ ^^^ ;^^_ 

dents are situated far back, as seen in Fig. 54 (p. 70). 
These back teeth are of different kinds in the different 
famihes, according to the nature of their food. Thus in 
the Squirrels, which live on nuts, these teeth are rounded. 




•70 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 54. — Skull of Kodent 
Animal. 



being needed only for crushing ; in 
the Kat they are raised into points, 
he being carnivorous ; while in the 
herbivorous Rodents they are real 
grinders, as represented in Fig. 54. 
116. The bushiness of the tail is 
the peculiar characteristic of the 
Squirrel family. This, when spread 
out, is of some assistance in the leap- 
ing of these arboreal animals, both guiding and buoying 
them up. In the Flying Squirrel, Fig. 55, there is an ar- 
rangement similar to 
that of the Flying 
Lemur, § 57. 

117. The Ameri- 
can Marmot, or 
Woodchuck, as it is 
commonly called, is 
about the size of a 
rabbit. It has an 
underground habi- 
tation, divided into 
apartments, and 

Fig. SS.-Flying Squirrel. IJ^.^^ ^^ ^l^y^^ ^j^^J 

esculent vegetables. Like some of the Monkeys (§ 52), 
it has cheek pouches, in which it carries stores of food to 
its burrow. 

118. The Mouse and Rat family is the most numerous 
of all the families of the Mammalia, and contains the 
smallest animals. Of the common Mouse, Cuvier says, 
" it is known in all times and in all places." Of the Rats 
there are two principal species, the Black Rat, and the 
Brown or Brownish-gray. The Black Rat is called the 
old English Rat, which was introduced into England from 
France as late as the sixteenth century. This is now 
nearly exterminated by the Brown Rat, which is a stron- 
ger animal. This latter Rat was introduced into this 




BODENT QUADEUPBDS. 



71 




Fig. 5G. — Egyptian Jerboa. 



country at the time of the Revolution in the foreign 
ships. 

119. The Jerboas are singular animals, making an aber- 
rant genus of this family. They have long tails with 

tufted ends, and long 
hind legs, which en- 
able them to make 
enormous leaps. The 
Egyptian Jerboa, 
Fig. 56^ is about the 
size of a large rat. 

120. Of the Bea- 
ver family, the com- 
mon Beaver, Fig. 57, 
so well known in Can- 
ada and the northern 
part of the United 
States, is the type 
species. It is distin- 
guished from all the 
other Rodents by its 
flat and scaly tail. 
• Its hind feet are 
\ 'V ebbed, and with 
these and its tail it is 
expert in swimming. 
Its incisor teeth are 
large and uncom- 
monly hard, and with 
Fig. 57.— Beaver. them it cau divide a 

common walking-stick at a bite with as clean a cut as 
that of a hatchet. Like the Seal (§ 101), it can close its 
ears and nostrils when it dives into the water. Beavers 
are very celebrated for the skill with which they build 
their dams and habitations, which they always do in 
companies. 

121. The common Porcupine, Fig. 58 (p. 72), is found 




72 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




, 5S. — Porcupine. 

iu Africa, India, Persia, Tartary, and in some parts of Eu- 
rope. It is nearly the largest of the Rodents. The spikes 
or quills with which it is covered constitute, like those of 
the Hedgehog, its means of defense. If it can not escape, 
it stands still, with its quills all bristling, or even runs 
back against its adversary. The fact that any quills that 
are a little loose fall off, or remain sticking to an adver- 
sary, has given rise to the mistake that the animal has the 
power of shooting them from its body. 

122. Of the Guinea-pig family, the Capybara, Fig. 59, 

is the largest of all 
the Rodents. It is 
a native of South 
America, where its 
flesh is much prized. 
It is a favorite prey 
of the Jaguar. Its 
shape, and its thin 
and straight hair, 

make it look quite like a pig. 

123. The Hares differ from the other Rodents in hav- 
ing more than four front sharp teeth. There are about 
thirty species. The Hare, which in England furnishes 




Fig. 59.— Capybara. 



TOOTHLESS QUADRUPEDS. 73 

such rare sport to the hunters, is represented in Fig. 60. 






"^n::^ I , ' 


^ .sv:;^ 


^, ^ ^4^k '■ f, 


,^^-^^- 


"^' ">i:^vX\ 


'ig. 60.- 


-Hare. 



The Rabbit, which is every where domesticated, is small- 
er than the Hare, but is like it in form. It lives in a bur- 
row, while the Hare lives in a sort of nest which it con- 
structs from grass. 

124. We now pass to the Edentata or toothless Quad- 
rupeds. This term applies only to a part of the order, 
the Ant-eaters and the Pangolins. The Sloth and the 
Armadilloes have back teeth, but they are imperfect. 

125. That singular animal, the Crested Ant-eater, Fig. 
61 (p. 74), is found in Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay. It 
is nearly four feet long. It lives both on common ants 
and the termites or white ants. With its strong claws 
it tears open their habitations, and then thrusts in its 
long tongue. This, being covered with a gummy saliva, 
has, when withdrawn, a multitude of ants adhering to it, 
which the animal swallows. 

126. The Pangolins, or Manidae (plural of Manis), are 
ant-eaters, and take the ants in the same way that the 
Crested Ant-eater does. They are remarkable for being 
encased in an armor of horny scales. When attacked, 
they roll themselves up, and raise their shai^p-edged scales 

D 



74 



NATUKAL HISTORY. 




"' ^A-^H 



Fig. 61. — Crested Ant-eater. 



as the Hedgehog does his spines. The Long-tailed Ma- 
nis, Fig. 62, is a native of Africa. 




Fig. 62. — Long-tailed Manis. 

127. The Armadilloes are found only in South Ameri- 
ca. The armor which covers them is different from that 
of the Pangohns. It is a sort of plate-armor. One spe- 
cies, the Six-banded, is represented in Fig. 63 (p. 15), 
The natives consider these animals a great delicacy when 



TOOTHLESS QUADRUPEDS. 




Fig. 63. — Six-banded Armadillo. 

roasted in their shells. The Armadilloes live on carrion, 
insects, and fruit. They are all small, except one species, 
which is called the Gigantic Armadillo, and weighs a 
hundred pounds or more. 

128. The Sloth, Fig. 64, differs from all other arboreal 




Fig. 64.— Sloth. 

Quadrupeds in its manner of climbing. It always has its 
back dowuAvard, as seen in the figure. It has been com- 
mon to consider this animal as imperfectly constructed. 



76 NxlTUEAL HISTOKY. 

and even Cuvier speaks of the " inconveniency of its or- 
ganization," and says of it that " nature seems to have 
amused herself in producing something grotesque and 
imperfect." But there is perfect adaptation here, as in 
every other animal, of the organization to the habits. It 
is constructed to live just in the way that it does, and 
moves about in the trees with great facility. It has been 
known to go from the bottom to the top of a high tree 
in a minute's time. With its strong curved claws it 
sleeps hanging from the branches of a tree as easily as a 
bird sleeps on its perch. The three species of Sloths are 
found only in the forests of the tropical portion of South 
America. They live on the leaves of trees. 

129. The order of Marsupials is named from a pouch 
or bag (Latin, r)iarsupiuni) which the females have for 
carrying their young for some time after birth. The 
young are born in an immature helpless state, and a sort 
of nest is thus provided for them in the body of the moth- 
er. Even after they have become able to leave it, they 
flee to it whenever they are alarmed. There are about 
eighty species. All of these animals are found only in 
Austraha and the neighboring islands, except the Opos- 
sums, which are found on the western continent, especial- 
ly in South America. 

130. The Great Kangaroo, Fig. 65 (p. 11), a native of 
Australia, has very long and powerful hind legs, and can 
make leaps of fifteen feet. Its fore feet are short and 
small, and are used more as hands than as feet. Its 
length is about ^\q feet, and its tail is three feet long. 
There are many different species of Kangaroos, all having 
a general resemblance to this. 

131. The Opossums are peculiar to America. There 
are about twenty species. They are arboreal in their 
habits, and they are assisted in their climbing, like some 
of the Monkey tribe, by their tails, which are long and 
scaly. In one other respect they are still more allied to 
the Monkeys. The inner toe of the hinder foot is some- 



MAEStlPIAL QUADRtrPEDS. 



11 




Fig. 65. — Great Kangaroo. 

what like a thumb, as it can be brought in opposition to 
the other toes for grasping. They can therefore be call- 
ed, like the monkeys, Pedimana, or foot-handed animals. 
The pouch in the abdomen for their young, however, 

places them decided- 
ly among the Marsu- 
pials. 

132. The Virginia 
Opossum, Figure QQ^ 
found in many of the 
Southern States of 
this country, is one 
of the largest of the 
genus, being about 
the size of a cat. It 
is nocturnal and ar- 
Fig. es.—virginia Opossum. borcal. It remains in 




'78 NATUBAL HISTOKY. 

the daytime inert in branches and liollows of trees, but 
prowls at night in search of its food, which consists of 
insects, birds, eggs, fruits, etc. It makes great use of its 
tail in climbing, being able to swing by it from one branch 
to another. When attacked it feigns death, and so well 
that even dogs are deceived. This is the origin of the 
common phrase, " playing 'possum." 

133. There are two very singular animals in Australia, 
about the classification of which there has been some dif- 
ference of opinion. By some they have been placed in 
this order, on account of some resemblance in the skele- 
ton, although they have not any marsupium. The first 
is the Duck-billed Platypus, Fig. 67. This singular ani- 




Fig. 67.— Duck-biUed Platypus. 

mal has a body like that of an Otter, and a bill like that 
of a Duck. It was first made known to British natural- 
ists by a stuffed specimen, and it was at once suspected 
that the bill of some Australian bird had been ingeniously 
fastened to the head of a quadruped. But it was found 
to be no deception, and this animal presents the strongest 
example that we have of an approach in the Mammal 
tribe to that of birds. It uses its bill precisely as the 
Duck does, searching for insects, small shell-fish, etc., by 
plunging it here and there in the mud. There is a curi- 
ous provision in the young to prevent the bill from inter- 
fering with the operation of suckling. It is very soft. 



MARSUPIAL QUADEUPEDS. ^9 

and does not become hard till it is time for the animal to 
cease to suckle. The fore feet are formed for digging, 
and the animal excavates a burrow, sometimes even fifty 
feet in length, in the bank of the stream, where it lives. 
Both the fore and the hind feet are fitted for swimming 
by being Avebbed. The web on its fore feet extends over 
its claws, but it has the power of folding it back when it 
wishes to dig. 

134. The other animal is the Echidna, or Porcupine 
Ant-eater. It is about the size and form of a hedgehog, 
but its spines are stouter. It burrows Avith great ra- 
pidity. When attacked by dogs, it quickly, by digging, 
sinks itself in earth or sand, so that they can see nothing 
but its bristling back, and this they are not disposed to 
touch. 

Questions. — What is said of the structure and habits of the Insect- 
ivora ? What are the families of this order ? What is said of the 
structure and habits of the common Mole ? Describe the arrange- 
ment of a mole-hill. What is said of the Shrew Mouse ? What of 
the Hedgehog ? Of the Banxrings ? What are the families of the 
order Rodentia? Describe their front teeth. What is said of their 
back teeth ? What is said of the Squirrel family ? What of the 
American Marmot ? Of the Rats and Mice ? Of the Jerboas ? De- 
scribe the structure and habits of the Beaver ? What is said of the 
Porcupine ? Of the Guinea-pig family ? Of the Hares ? What is 
said of the Edentata ? What of the Crested Ant-eater ? Of the Pan- 
golins ? Of the Armadilloes ? Of the Sloth ? From what do the 
Marsupials get their name ? Where are they found ? What is said 
of the Great Kangaroo ? How many species are there of the Opos- 
sums ? Where are they found ? What are their habits ? How are 
they allied to the Monkey tribe ? What is said of the Virginia Opos- 
sum ? What are the structure and habits of the Duck-billed Platy- 
pus ? What is said of the Echidna ? Where are these two animals 
found? 



80 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THICK-SKINNED QUADRUPEDS. 

135. We now come to the second division of Quadru- 
peds, the Ungulata or hoofed quadrupeds. Of this there 
are two orders : 1. The Pachydermata, or thick-skinned. 
2. The Ruminantia, ruminating, or cud-chewing. The 
Pachydermata are variously classified by different natu- 
ralists. I make six families : 1. The Elephants. 2. The 
Tapirs. 3. The Pig Family. 4. The Rhinoceros Family. 
5. The Hippopotamus Family. 6. The Horse Family. 

136. Of the Elephants there are only two species, the 
Asiatic and the African, the latter of which you see in 
Fig. 68. The Elephaiit has several hoofs arranged in a 




Fig. 68.— The Elephant. 

circular manner around the bottom of the foot. His 
trunk or proboscis (from which this family is sometimes 



THICK-SKINJS-ED QUADRUPEDS. 81 

called Proboscidea) is a wonderful organ. It has in it 
40,000 muscles interlaced together. These give it great 
flexibility, and make it the hand of the elephant. On 
the end of this hand is a small finger-like projection, 
which is a feeler, and is also used in picking up small 
objects. The Elephant gathers his food with his trunk, 
and puts it into his mouth. He gets his drink also with 
his trunk in this way — he draws it up into the two nos- 
trils of the trunk, it being prevented from going back 
into the throat by a valve. When he drinks he turns 
the end of the trunk into his mouth, and pours the water 
in from it. He sometimes gives himself a shower-bath 
by throwing water from his trunk over his body. It is 
through the trunk that the Elephant sends forth his 
trumpet-like voice. This organ is not only a hand, a 
forcing and suction pump, and a trumpet, but it is also 
the animal's nose. 

137. The neck of the Elephant is so short that he could 
not possibly reach his food or drink without his trunk. 
His food is chiefly grass, the leaves of trees, and roots. 
These last he loosens with his tusks, using them as we 
use a crowbar, and then he pulls them up with his trunk. 

138. Elephants congregate in large herds, sometimes 
numbering hundreds, or even thousands; and no sight 
can be more grand than such a herd in the midst of the 
magnificent scenery and rich verdure of an African land- 
scape. The Elephant of India is more sagacious than that 
of Africa, and is much used in traveling, and in hunting 
tigers, as described in § 72. The African Elephant is not 
at present tamed by man, and is hunted merely for the 
sake of his tusks, from which very fine ivory is obtained. 
The trade in tusks, both in Asia and Africa, is immense. 
It requires annually many thousands of elephants to fur- 
nish a supply of ivory to England alone. 

139. Although the Elephant is the largest of all the 
terrestrial Mammalia, there are remains of extinct ani- 
mals which reached a much larger size. This is the case 

D2^ 



82 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



with the Mastodon Giganteus, whose bones have been 
found alone m America. 

140. The Tapir is in some respects hke the Hog. It 
has a prolonged snout, which allies it, on the other hand, 
to the Elephant. With this it grasps fruit and herbage, 
putting it into its mouth. The South American Tapir 
is from five to six feet high. The Malay Tapir, Fig. 69, 




69— The Tapir. 



is larger. It has its loins and hind quarters of a grayish 
white color, giving it a singular appearance. 

141. Of the Pig Family I need say but little. The 
two orifices of the snout are like those in the trunk of 
the Elephant. The proverbial uncleanliness of the com- 
mon Hog is owing in fact to the circumstances in which 
man places it, and no animal seems to like clean straw 
better. The Wild Hog or boar, the original of the do- 
mestic hog, is still found in many parts of Europe, es- 
pecially in the German forests, and its chase is one of 
the sports of hunters. One of this family, the Baby- 
roussa, or hog-deer. Fig. 70 (p. 83), has four tusks, two 
of which do not pass out between the lips, but through 
an opening in the skin. It is a native of Java and the 
Moluccas. 



THICK-SKi:N']SrED QUxVDRUPEDS. 



83 




Fig. TO The Babyi'oussa. 

142. There are seven species of the Rhinoceros. These 
are ungainly animals with short legs, approaching in size 
the Elephants. They are distinguished chiefly by their 
horns, which are in texture something like whalebone. 
Some species have two horns. Those that have one, as 
in Fig. 71, are called unicorns. These animals live an 




Fig. Tl.— The Rhinoceros. 

indolent life on the marshy borders of lakes and rivers, 
and are very fond of wallowing in mud. They are found 
in Asia and Africa. 



84 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

143. There is but one known sj)ecies of the Hippopot- 
amus (tTTTToc, hippos^ horse ; worafxoQ^ pota?nos^ river), or 
river-horse, an inhabitant of Africa. It passes a large 
portion of its time in the water, especially in the day- 
time, leaving it at night in search of its food, which is 
the herbage growing on the banks of rivers and lakes. 
Its hide is of great thickness, even to two inches, on its 
back and sides, and is made into shields, whips, and 
walking-sticks. This animal is supposed by some to be 
the Behemoth of the Bible. 

144. There are certain birds, called Rhinoceros Birds, 
which are always in attendance on the hippopotamus 
and the rhinoceros. They live on the ticks and other 
parasites which swarm upon these animals. It is said 
that these birds are the best friends which those huge 
creatures have, for they rouse them from their sleep 
when they see an enemy approach. 

145. The Horse Family includes the Horse, the Ass, 
the Zebras, etc. The hoof in this family is one solid 
piece, and so the family is sometimes called solidungula. 

146. The first mention made of the Horse in the Bible 
is in connection with the sale of corn in Egypt by Joseph, 
Genesis, xlvii., 17. What is the original country of the 
horse is not known. The herds running wild in Tartary, 
Carpenter says, are undoubtedly descendants of horses 
that have been domesticated, for their habits are the 
same with those of the herds in the pampas of South 
America, and these are known to have descended from 
horses introduced by the Spaniards. The herd has al- 
ways a leader which is a male, and when attacked they 
put the colts and the females in the rear, and make re- 
sistance by kicking with their hind feet. The natives 
catch these wild horses with the lasso, a noose of leather, 
which they throw with great skill, and they very readily 
tame them. There are herds of wild oxen as well as 
liorses in the pampas of South America, and there is ac- 
cordingly an immense trade in the hides of both. 



THICK-SKIKNED QUADRUPEDS. 



85 



147. The finest horses in the world are found in Ara- 
bia, and nowhere is this animal more highly prized. The 
Arab treats his horse as one of the family, permitting 
him to live in the same tent with him, to feed from his 
hand, and even to sleep among his children. The mutual 
attachment between the horse and his master is there- 
fore often of the strongest character, and the most ex- 
travagant ofiers will sometimes fail to induce an Arab to 
part with his horse, even when pinching poverty makes 
these ofiers very tempting to him. 

148. The Ass was domesticated probably before the 
Horse. It was, and is now, in many parts of the East, 
the beast usually ridden in civil life, the Horse being 
especially devoted to war. The care bestowed upon it 
there makes it really an elegant and spirited animal. 
The custom of having persons of distinction ride on white 
asses is of great antiquity, as appears from Judges v., 10, 
" Speak, ye that ride on white asses." Some asses are 
fleeter than the Horse, as the Dzigguetai, Fig. 72, which 
inhabits the greater part of Central Asia. 




Fig. 72.— The Dzigguetai. 

149. The Zebras, Fig. 73 (p. 86), found in Southern 
Africa, live, like the horse, in troops, and, with their dis- 



86 NATUEAL HISTORY. 




T3.— The Zebra. 



tinct and regular stripes, make a brilliant appearance as 
they flee together before the hunter. The Quagga of 
the same country is similar, but from the indistinctness 
of its stripes it is a less beautiful animal. Neither of 
these animals can be profitably used like the Horse and 
Ass, because they are so wild and vicious. 

Questions. — What are the orders erf the Ungulata? What are the 
families of the Pachydermata ? How many species are there of the 
Elephant, and where are they found ? What is the arrangement of 
the Elephant's foot ? What are the vaVious offices of his proboscis ? 
What is his food, and how does he obtain it ? What is said of the 
herds of elephants ? How are Elephants valuable to man ? Which 
species is most so ? What is said of large extinct animals ? What 
is said of the Tapirs ? What of the Pig Family ? What of the 
Babyroussa ? Of the Rhinoceros ? Of the Hippopotamus ? Of the 
Rhinoceros Birds ? What does the Horse Family include ? What 
is the first that we know of the Horse? What is said of the herds 
of wild horses ? What of the Arabian Horse ? What of the Ass ? 
What species of the Ass is fleeter than the Horse ? What is said of 
the Zebra? 



RUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 87 



CHAPTER IX. 

RUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 

150. Of the Ruminantia, or cud-chewing quadrupeds, 
there are eight families: 1. Bovidae, oxen, buffaloes, etc. 
2. Ovidae, sheep. 3. Capridae, goats. 4. Cervidae, the 
deer tribe. 5. Moschidae, the musk-deer tribe. 6. An- 
telopidae, antelopes. 7. Camelidae, camels. 8. Came- 
lopardae, giraffes, or camelopards. 

151. No animals are so useful to man as those of this 
order. Almost all the anim^ flesh which he consumes 
comes from the Ruminants. Some of them are his beasts 
of burden, and some supply him wdth various articles of 
necessity and convenience, such as milk, tallow, hides, 
horns, etc. Being thus necessary to man, they are dis- 
tributed over nearly all parts of the globe. Some of 
them, as the Reindeer of Lapland, and the Camel of 
Arabia and Northern Africa, are confined mostly to cer- 
tain regions ; wiiile others, as the Ox, the Sheep, and the 
Goat, go every w^here with man, except in regions which 
are so cold as not to afford them the requisite food in 
pasturage. 

152. The Ruminants make a very well defined order, 
all the families agreeing in their prominent common 
characteristics, and none of them being to any extent 
aberrant. Of all the herbivorous animals these are the 
most entirely confined to vegetable food. Of the Ro- 
dents, though mostly herbivorous, there are many that 
eat some animal food ; most of the Edentata live on in- 
sects, and some devour flesh ; and several species even 
of the Pachydermata have in part an animal diet. But 
there is not one of the Rimiinants that is not exclusively 
herbivorous. Some, as the Camel and the Giraffe, are 
formed for browsing on the leaves and young shoots of 



88 NATURAL HISTORY. 

trees, but most of the order are fitted to gather and live 
upon the herbage on the surface of the ground. 

153. The feet in this order agree in terminating in two 
toes with hoofs. These appear externally as if there was 
a single hoof cleft. Hence these animals have been call- 
ed cloven-footed. No animal in this order has front or 
incisor teeth in the upper jaw. There is a firm pad there, 
against which the incisor or cutting teeth of the lower 
jaw press when the jaws are brought together. The 
back teeth are specially formed for grinding, and the 
jaws are adapted to the sidewise grinding motion. The 
difierence between this and the motion of the jaws in a 
carnivorous animal, you may see if you observe a cow 
and a dog when eating. ^ 

154. The name of this order is given to it from the 
singular process called rumination. The object of this 
I will explain. The stomach of the Ruminant is not a 
single organ. It has four cavities, as you may see in Fig. 
74, in the case of the Sheep ; or, rather, there are four 



(Esophagus. 



3d stomach. 



Intestine. 



Fig. 74.— Stomachs of the Sheep. 



Stomachs. The grass cropped by the Ruminant animal 
is not chewed at once, but is passed directly into the 



RUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 89 

large first stomach, or paunch. Here it is macerated or 
soaked. Then it is passed into the second stomach, or 
honeycomb stomach, as it is called, from the cellular ar- 
rangement of its inner surface. Here in some way it is 
all made into distinct balls. Each of these is passed up 
into the mouth, and is chewed. It then goes down the 
gullet into the third stomach, the mcmyplies^ so called 
because its inner lining membrane has a great many folds. 
From thence it is passed into the fourth stomach. It is 
this that corresponds to the stomach of man, and of all 
animals that live partly or wholly on animal food ; for 
here the gastric juice is secreted and is mingled with the 
food. In the suckling Ruminant the milk passes directly 
into the fourth stomach, the other stomachs remaining 
unemployed until the animal begins to graze. 

155. The purpose of this arrangement for rumination 
is thus stated by Carpenter : " The Ruminantia, taken as 
a group, are timid, and are destitute of powerful means 
of defense against their foes, seeking safety in flight when 
alarmed, rather than stopping to defend themselves. A 
large proportion of them are natives of tropical regions, 
where they are liable to the attacks of the larger beasts 
of prey. Now their food — consisting, as it does, of grass- 
es and herbage, which contain a considerable amount of 
woody fibre — requires to be thoroughly masticated be- 
fore it can be properly digested. When feeding on the 
pastures they frequent they are subject to many alarms ; 
and if they were compelled to spend a considerable time 
in masticating their food before swallowing it, they would 
often be in danger of starvation, by being obliged to leave 
their pasture before their wants were sup^Dlied. But by 
their poAver of subsequently returning their food to the 
mouth, and chewing it at their leisure, they are enabled 
to dispense entirely with any mastication previously to 
first swallowing it, and to feed with comparative quick- 
ness. They thus convey a store of food into the first 
stomach or paunch, as the Monkey does into his cheek- 



90 NATURAL HISTORY. 

pouches ; and then, retiring to a secluded place among 
their mountain fastnesses, they masticate their aliment 
in comparative security. Moreover, the maceration (or 
soaking) in the fluids of the flrst and second stomachs, to 
which the food has been subjected, causes it to be much 
more readily ground down than if it were triturated im- 
mediately on being first cropped from the pasture." 

156. There is an obvious ada^Dtation of the structure 
of the Ruminants to the habits just stated. That they 
may quickly perceive the approach of an enemy their 
senses are extremely acute. Their eyes are placed at the 
side of the head rather than in front, which affords them 
a great range of vision. Besides this, the pupils of the 
eyes have an oval shape, extending Iwrizontally ^ instead 
of up and down, as we see it in the Cat.* This increases 
the range of sight in the rear direction. The ears are 
placed far back, and can be readily turned to any quar- 
ter. This is quite essential in fleeing from their pursuers. 
In order that they may flee swiftly they have long legs, 
and are for the most part slender in form. When there 
is an accumulation of flesh and fat, making the animal 
bulky and slow in motion, it is commonly owing to the 
influence of domestication. Though the Ruminants are 
generally timid animals, the means of defense which they 
have in their horns and hoofs some of them are disposed 
to use sometimes in ofiensive warfare, at least among 
each other. 

157. The family Bovidse (_Bo5, an Ox) is distinguished 
from the other families of this order by the uniform pres- 
ence of horns in both sexes, and by the bulkiness of their 
forms. The common Ox is diflused widely in all quar- 
ters of the globe, and has a great variety of breeds. I 
will notice only one. The Bos Indicus, the Zebu, or 

* The reason for this shape of the pupil in the cat and other ani- 
mals of the feline tribe is obvious. In taking its prey the animal has 
need of a good range of vision up and down, or vertically, rather than 
laterally, especially if its prey be on any height, as a tree. 



RUMINAlSrT QUADEUPEDS. 



91 



Brahmin Bull, Fig. 75, is a native of India, and is remark- 
able for a large fatty hump above the shoulders. In all 




Zebu, or Brahmin Bull. 



Southern Asia and Eastern Africa this animal supplies 
the place of the common Ox, and is supposed to have 
come from the same origin, instead of being another spe- 
cies. The Hindoos treat it with great reverence and at- 
tention. They allow it to go about the streets, which it 
does with great familiarity, even walking into shops, 
helping itself to sweetmeats and other articles, and re- 
senting the slightest affronts with a peevish thrust of the 
horns. But while the bull is thus honored, the ox is 
treated without mercy, being urged on in its labor by 
the cruel goad. The Brahmin cow is treated more kind- 
ly than the ox, but is not reverenced as the bull is. 

158. The true Buffaloes belong to a genus of this fam- 
ily. They are found in Asia and Africa, and to some lit- 
tle extent in the south of Europe. The common species, 
Fig. 76 (p. 92), was originally a native of India, where it 
has long been domesticated, and used like the Ox. Its 
hide is very strong, and harness is made from it. 

159. The American Bison, Fig. 77 (p. 92), improperly 
called a Buffalo, is found in immense herds in the prairies 



92 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 76.— Buffalo. 

of North America. The Indians hunt them with the bow 
and arrow, mounted upon swift horses to give them chase. 




Fig. IT. — American Bison. 

They show great skill as well as daring, often firing their 
arrows into the hearts of their victims. The flesh of 



KUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 93 

these animals constitutes a large portion of the food of 
the Indians. Much of the pem^nican^ so called, used by 
hunters and voyagers in the far north, is made from the 
meat of the Bison. Then the skin, the buffalo-robe, is a 
necessary article of clothing, and is used also in construct- 
ing tents, and the horns furnish the powder-flasks of the 
hunters. The Buffalo or Bison hunt is therefore a great 
item in the life of an Indian in the West. The herds of 
these animals sometimes number thousands. Lewis and 
Clarke supposed that there were certainly 20,000 in one 
herd which they saw. The range of the Bison in this 
country is becoming every year less extensive from the 
encroachments of civilized man. 

160. The Yak, Fig. 78, is found in Tartary. It is not 




Fig. 78. —Yak. 

a very large animal. The mass of hair, which, rising 
above the shoulders, hangs like a mane almost to the 
ground, is applied to various uses by the Tartars. They 
weave it into cloth, which they use in making articles of 
dress and their tents, and they also make ropes from it. 
The hair of the tail, which is great in amount, is long and 
fine. The tail, w^itli an ivory or metal handle, is used in 
India to keep off musquitoes, and is called a chowrie. 



94 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



161. The Musk Ox, Fig. 79, is a native of the cold re- 
gions of North America. It somewhat resembles the 




Fig. 79.— Musk Ox. 

Yak. It is covered with very long hair which almost 
reaches the ground. It appears in small herds, number- 
ing, perhaps, twenty or thirty. Both this animal and the 
Yak are rather small, but the thick hair covering them 
makes them look quite large. 

Questions, — ^What are the families of the order Ruminantia ? What 
is said of the usefulness of the Ruminants to man ? State how well 
defined this order is compared with some others. What is the struc- 
ture of the feet of the Ruminants ? What are the structure and ar- 
rangement of their teeth ? What is rumination ? Describe the ar- 
rangement of the stomachs of the Ruminants. Illustrate its puipose. 
What is there in some Monkeys analogous to the paunch of the Ru- 
minants? In what other respects is the organization of the Rumi- 
nants adapted to their habits ? What is said of the arrangement of 
the eye? What influence has domestication on the bulk of the Rumi- 
nants ? What partial exceptions are there to the general timid habits 
of this order ? What distinguishes the Bovidse from the other fami- 
lies? What is said of the distribution of the Ox, and of its varieties? 
What is said of the Bos Indicus ? Where are the true Buffaloes 
found ? How are they useful to man ? What is said of the Ameri- 
can Bison ? What of its usefulness to man ? What is said of the 
Yak ? What of the Musk Ox ? 



BUMINANT QUADKUPEDS. 95 



CHAPTER X. 

BUMINANT QXJADEIJPEDS COntluued. 

162. The different species of the Ovidse, or Sheep 
family, have many varieties, from the influence of domes- 
tication. The Sheep is the first animal ]ioticed in the 
Bible as subjected to man, for ''Abel was a keeper of 
sheep." The tail of the Sheep seems to be much affected 
by domestication, it being much larger in the domesti- 
cated than in those that run wild. In the Egyptian and 
Syrian Sheep it often becomes enormous, reaching a 
weight of 50 or even 100 pounds, in which case a board 
or a little wagon is attached to it, to prevent it from 
dragging on the ground. This overgrown tail is mostly 
a mass of fat, Avhich is considered a great delicacy, and 
is frequently used as butter. 

163. The Capridoe, or Goat family, are nearly allied to 
the Sheep. They are, however, stronger, lighter, more 
agile, and less timid. They appear in almost all parts 
of the world. In some countries they are greatly valued 
for their milk. The best Morocco leather is' made from 
their skins, and the skin of the kid is much used in mak- 
ing fine gloves. The silken wool of the Angora Goat of 
Asia Minor hangs in long ringlets, furnishing the ma- 
terial for the finest camlets. From the wool of the Cash- 
mere Goat of Thibet and the region of the Himalaya 
Mountains, are manufactured the fiamous Cashmere 
shawls. The Caucasian Ibex, Fig. 80 (p. 96), which in- 
habits the Alpine regions of Europe and Western Asia, 
is remarkable for its large and beautiful horns. They 
are surrounded with rings at regular intervals, and are 
very strong. When chased, it will frequently turn on 
its pursuer, and with its horns, hurl him from some 



96 



NATUKxVL HISTOEY. 




Fig. SO. — Caucasian Ibex. 



precipice, unless he 
can shoot it before it 
reaches him. 

164. TheCervid^, 
or Deer family, are 
distinguished from 
all the other fami- 
lies of Ruminants, in 
having horns which 
are cast off at inter- 
vals, new ones grow- 
ing out in their place. 
In the young animal 
they are small, but in 
the full-grown Deer 
they are very large. 
These horns are also 
covered with a vel- 
vety skin, and are called antlers. While they are grow- 
ing there are blood-vessels in this skin, and from the 
blood in them the antlers are made. You can see on 
them, after this skin is stripped off, just the course of 
the large arteries, by the channels for them in the horn. 
These antlers grow very rapidly. After they have at- 
tained their growth, there is no farther need of the blood 
in the " velvet," and it must be got rid of, for if it re- 
mained there would be bleeding every time that the 
Deer should hit any thing hard with its antlers. There 
is a singular process for doing this. In the rings of 
bone at the foot of the antlers there are openings, through 
which the arteries pass. These gradually close up, and 
the supply of blood to the " velvet" is, therefore, grad- 
ually cut off. It would not answer to have this done 
suddenly, for then all the blood going to the head would 
be turned in upon the brain, and such a rush of blood to 
that organ would be injurious, perhaps fatal. After blood 
ceases to be supplied to this skin it dries and readily peels 



KUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 97 

off, and the Deer gets rid of it by rubbing his antlers 
against the trees. 

165. The females of this family, except in the case of 
the Reindeer, have no antlers. In those species that are 
found in extremely cold climates, as the Elk, Fig. 81, 




Fig. 81.— The Elk. 



the antlers are apt to be flattened, " as if," says Carpen- 
ter, " they were destined to be used by the animal, like 
shovels, in clearing the snow from off its food." The 
animals of this tribe are celebrated for both their beauty 
and speed. They are distributed over all parts of the 
globe, except Australia, and the southern and central 
regions of Africa, these regions being supplied in place 
of them with Giraffes and multitudes of Antelopes. 

166. The Reindeer is seen throughout the Arctic re- 
gions of America, Europe, and Asia. It lives in summer 
on the buds and twigs of small shrubs, and in winter on 
a lichen growing under the snow, v>^hieh it digs up with 

E 



98 J!^ATUKAL HISTOllY. 

its feet. It is gregarious both in the wild and in the 
domesticated state. So important is this animal to the 
Laplander, that his wealth is estimated by the nmnber 
of Reindeer which he has, just as that of the patriarchs 
of old, and the Arabs of the present time, is estimated 
by the number of their herds, and flocks, and camels. 
A Laplander in good circumstances has several hundred, 
and some have not less than two thousand. The Gadfly 
and the Mosquito are so annoying to the Reindeer, that 
the Laplander is obliged to make periodical migrations 
Avith his herd to the mountains to escape them. 

167. The Axis Deer, Fig. 82, is a beautiful animal. It 




Fig. 82.— The Axis Deer. 

is a native of India. Its horns are slender, and are di- 
vided quite regularly into three branches. Its usual 
color is a fawn yellow, with regular white spots, and a 
black stripe running down the back. 

168. The Moschidse take their name from that pecul- 
iarly strong perfume called musk, which is obtained from 
one of the species. They resemble the Deer family in 



RUMINANT QUADKUPEDS. 99 

general appearance, but they are much smaller, and they 
have no horns. The true Musk-deer, Fig. 83, is found 




Fig. 83.— The Musk-deer. 

in the central part of Asia. The musk is contained in a 
pouch. Its perfume is so strong when pure and fresh, 
that the hunter, after killing the animal, is obliged to 
cover his nostrils with cloth before he secures the pouch, 
else he w^ll have severe headache, and j^erhaps violent 
bleeding from the nose. 

169. This substance, the most powerful perfume in the 
world, is formed from the blood of the animal, like any 
other secretion. And yet his blood does not differ essen- 
tidly from that of other animals, neither is his food espe- 
cially different from that of those in the same neighbor- 
hood. The chemistry which can produce this, and vari- 
ous other perfumes in other animals, is utterly beyond 
our knowledge. The same thing can be said of the 
poisons in both the animal and vegetable world, they 
being made in the animal from the blood, and in the 
vegetable from the sap. 

170. The Antelopes are similar to the Deer in general 
form and in activity. They differ from them chiefly in 
having permanent horns. There are more than seventy 
species distributed through the warm parts of the earth. 
They are most abundant in Africa, a few species being 
found in Asia, fewer still in America, and only two in 



100 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Europe. They may be divided into four sub-families: 
1. The true Antelopes, remarkable for their graceful 
forms, long and slender limbs, and great agility. 2. The 
Bush Antelopes, having a more compact form and shorter 
limbs, and living in jungles and thickets. 3. The Capri- 
form Antelopes, shaped much like goats, and living on 
hills and mountains ; the Chamois of Europe is of this 
kind. 4. Bovine Antelopes, verging in their shape to 
the Ox family ; this may be considered as a decidedly 
aberrant group, I will notice but a few of the species 
of the Antelope tribe. 

171. The Springbok, Fig. 84, is one of the most beau- 



Fig. 84— The Springbok. 

tiful and agile of the true Antelopes. It inhabits south- 
ern Africa. It derives its name from the habit which it 
has of springing up to the height of several feet when 
alarmed. Large herds of Springboks spread themselves 
over the wide plains. When a drought occurs, as is 
often the case in the tropical regions, they migrate in 
large bodies in search of food. Some persons have seen, 
as they suppose, as many as twenty or thirty thousand 
together. 

172. Among the true Antelopes is also the Gazelle, 



EUMINANT QUADEIJPEDS. 



101 




Fig. SS.—The GazeUe. 



Fig. 85, so celebrated in the poetry of the East. This 
is probably the Roe of the Bible. Its eyes are large, 
dark, and lustrous. Its speed is so great that not even 




Fig. 86,~The Oryx. 



102 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



the Greyhound can overtake it. It lives in herds, and 
is found in Arabia and Syria. It is easily domesticated, 
and is often seen in the court-yards of houses in Syria. 

173. The Oryx, Fig. 86 (p. 101), is a native of South 
Africa. It is the swiftest of all animals in that region. 
It has many of the characteristic beauties of the Ante- 
lopes, but its tail is like that of a horse, and its horns 
are very peculiar, being perfectly straight and of a dark 
color. With these formidable horns, two and a half feet 
in length, it can defend itself even against the Lion. 
When the Lion attacks it, it lowers its horns and receives 
him on its sharp points ; and the two have been often 
known to die together, the Oryx by the violence of the 
shock and the Lion from the wounds of the liorns. 

1 74. The Kudu, Fig. 87, also a native of South Africa, 




Fig. 87 The Kudu. 



is one of the most beautiful of the Antelopes. Its horns 
are nearly four feet long, and their spiral form adds 



RUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 



103 



much to their beauty. Although a large animal, it can 
leap with wonderful activity. The largest of the Ante- 
lopes is the Eland, found in the same region. It is as 
large as an ox. It is hunted for its flesh, which is high- 
ly esteemed. 

175. The Gnu, or Horned Horse, Fig. 88, is a very 




Fig. SS.— The Gnu. 

singular animal belonging to this same region. It is 
difficult, at first view, to say whether it has most of the 
characteristics of the Horse, or the Buffalo, or the Ante- 
lope. Its horns cover the top of the forehead, then, 
sweeping down in front of the face, turn with a sharp 
curve upward. This is like some of the Buffaloes. The 
resemblance to the Horse is in the mane and the tail. 
The legs are like those of the Antelopes. It is an animal 
of great speed. When enraged it is very dangerous. 

176. The family Camelidae includes the Camels and 
Dromedaries of the Old World, and the Llamas, which 
may be said to be the Camels of the New. There are 
two species of the true Camel : the Arabian Camel, Fig. 
89 (p. 104), having one hump, and the Bactrian Camel, 
having two humps, the latter being an inhabitant of 
Central Asia, Thibet, and China, 



104 



NATUEAL HISTOEY. 




Fig. 89 Tlie Arabian Camel. 



111. The Arabian Camel has been called very appro- 
priately " the ship of the desert." It is especially fitted 
in many respects for traveling across the wide deserts 
in that quarter of the world. Its broad elastic cushions 
on its feet afford it a firm footing on the sand. The 
callous surfaces on its chest and limbs defend it from the 
heat of the sand as it takes its rest. The eye is shielded 
from the glaring light of the sun by a brow hanging over 
like a roof, and by its long eyelashes. Its nostrils can 
be closed at pleasure when the hot sand is driven along 
in clouds by the wind. Its teeth and lips are fitted to 
the food on which it must depend in the desert. The 
thorny shrubs and tough leaves which it eats require 
powerful cutting and grinding teeth for their mastica- 
tion. These the Camel has. And with its long stout 
lip it readily draws the twigs and leaves into its mouth. 
But the most essential provision of all is in the water- 
cells in one of the stomachs of the Camel. Here he can 
stow away a large quantity of water for use on his long 
journey. This he uses only as he requires it. When 



RUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 105 

he is thirsty, or needs water to moisten his food as he 
eats it, he can force any amount that is required out of 
this reservoir up into the throat. By this arrangement 
the Camel can go without drinking for many days. 
Sometimes travelers, who are suffering severely from 
want of water, kill one of the Camels in their caravan 
for the purpose of getting at the water in this reservoir. 

178. The Camel is a strange - looking animal. The 
Pictorial Museum contains the following good descrip- 
tion of it : " There is something strange and imposing in 
the aspect of the gaunt and angular Camel, destitute, as 
it confessedly is, of grace and animation. We are 
amazed at its height, its uncouth proportions, its long, 
thin neck, its meagre limbs, and the huge hump on its 
back, which conveys the idea of distortion. Quietly it 
stands in one fixed attitude, its long-lashed eyelids droop- 
ing over the large dark eyes; it moves, and onward 
stalks with slow and measured steps, as if exercise were 
painful. To complete the j)icture, it is covered with 
shaggy hair irregularly disposed, here forming tangled 
masses, there almost Avanting. Its thick mobile upper 
lip is deeply divided ; its feet are large and spreading, 
the toes being merely tipped with little hoofs." 

179. The docility of the Camel is such that one man 
can lead thirty, or even fifty of them, fastened together 
in a row. The traveler mounts the Camel as it is kneel- 
ing ; and as it rises, contrary to the habit of all other ani- 
mals, upon its hind feet first, he Avill be thrown suddenly 
over its head unless he is especially careful. The im- 
portance of the Camel in the regions where it is found 
can hardly be realized by us. It is essential, as you have 
seen, wherever wide deserts are to be traversed ; and St. 
Hilaire, in his Letters on Egypt, says that " without it 
nearly the whole of Africa and one quarter of Asia might 
j)erhaps have remained uninhabited." This statement is 
rather too strong, but it shows what is the estimate of 
the Camel's value by one who had traveled extensively 

E 2 



106 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



in those regions. Besides its uses as a beast of burden, 
this animal affords sustenance to man by its milk and its 
flesh, and also hair for the manufacture of cloth. 

180. The Dromedary is a mere variety of the Camel, 
holding the same relation to it as a race-horse does to 
the heavy draft-horse. It is used principally for jour- 
neys where dispatch is requisite; and it can carry only 
a single person, and but a light burden in addition. It 
is by no means as fleet as a horse, but it can maintain a 
moderate pace for a long time, going easily at the rate 
of six or even eight miles an hour for twenty-four hours 
consecutively. 

' 181. The Llamas of South America, of which there are 
several species, though they are much smaller animals 
than the Camel, resemble it in many respects in form 
and structure. They have, however, no hump, and their 
feet, instead of being cushioned, have hoofs with claw-like 
IDrojections, to enable them to climb the rocky hills among 
which they live. The Peruvian Llama, Fig. 90, inhabits 




Fig. 90. — Peruvian Llama. 

elevated regions, almost on the borders of perpetual snow. 
When the Spaniards came first to South America, this 
animal was the only beast of burden ; but now it is su- 



RUMINANT QUADRUPEDS. 



107 



perseded mostly by the horses and mules which have 
been introduced from Europe. 

182. In the family of Camelopardidae there is only one 
known species, the Giraffe, Fig. 91. This very peculiar 




Fig. 91.— Giraffe. 

animal has some points of resemblance to the Camel, and 
some to the Deers and Antelopes. It is found only in 
Africa; there being two varieties, one in the southern 
part of the continent, and the other in Nubia, Abyssinia, 
and the adjoining districts. It is seen in herds of twelve 
to forty in number, making splendid objects in the land- 
scape, as with their tall necks they browse from the trees. 



Questions. — What is said of the Ovidse? What effect is produced 
on their tails by domestication ? How do the Capridse differ from the 
Ovidse ? What is said of their usefulness to man ? What is said of 
the Angora Goat ? Of the Cashmere Goat ? Of the Caucasian Ibex ? 
How are the Cervidse distinguished from the other families of the Ru- 
minants ? What is the office of the * * velvet, " and how is it disposed 



108 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of when no longer needed ? What is said of the Elk ? Of the Rein- 
deer? Of the Axis Deer? How do the Moschidoe differ from the 
Deer family ? What gives them their name ? How is the musk ob- 
tained ? What is said of the chemistry of this secretion ? Compare 
the Antelopes with the Deer. What countries do they inhabit? Into 
what sub-families are they divided ? What is said of the Springbok ? 
Of the Gazelle? Of the Oryx? Of the Kudu? Of the Gnu? What 
are included in the family Camelidce ? Where are the two species of 
Camels found, and how do they differ ? Show in what respects the 
organization of the Camel is adapted to its habits and circumstances. 
Describe its appearance. What is said of its docility ? Of its mode 
of rising from a kneeling posture ? Of its importance to man ? What 
is said of the Dromedary ? What of the Llamas ? What of the Gi- 
raffe? 



CHAPTER XL 

THE WHALE TRIBE. 

183. The water contains both the largest and smallest 
of animals. In the sub-class now to be considered, the 
Cetacea, or Whale tribe, we find the largest animals ex- 
isting at the present time. Those monstrous terrestrial 
quadrupeds, the Elephant and the Hipj)opotamus, are not 
to be compared to the Whale ; and even the smaller spe- 
cies of this class, the Dolphin and Porpoise, are above 
the average size of land animals. 

184. The animals of this tribe are, unlike all that we 
have as yet considered, destitute of both hands and feet. 
Though they are Mammals, they are fitted to live, like 
the Fishes, in the water. They were classified among fish- 
es by ancient zoologists, and are still spoken of as fish in 
ordinary conversation. There is one group of Mammals 
already noticed, the Seal family, which have some ap- 
proach to the Whales both in form and habits (§101). 

185. The general shape of the Whales is like that of 
fishes. The tail is, however, different in one respect. In 
the Whale it is flat horizontally, not vertically, as in the 
Fish. In swimming, therefore, it moves up and down, 



THE WHALE TRIBE. 



109 




while that of the fish moves laterally. Some of its mo- 
tions, however, are oblique, and not wholly vertical. It 
is with the tail, as in the case of fishes, that the Whale 
mostly swims, the flippers answering the pm^pose chiefly 
of balancers. When the Whale is killed he turns over on 
his back, showing that it is by the action of the flippers 
that he keeps in his ordinary position. Though the Whale 

has neither hands nor feet, 
yet the frame-work of the 
flippers is much like that of 
a hand, as may be seen in 
Fig. 92, representing a flijD- 
per, and also its bones un- 
covered. The immense pow- 
er of the tail in swimming 
can be judged of by its 
breadth, which often is 20 

Fig. 92 Flipper of the Whale. feet. 

186. The skin of the Cetacea is very peculiar. In other 
animals which have much fat, it is accumulated beneath 
the skin ; but in the Whale the skin is enormously thick, 
and has the fat mingled with its fibres. It is this mix- 
ture of skin and fat which is called blubber. This is 
sometimes two feet thick, and weighs in some cases 30 
tons ; and yet, it being lighter than water, it helps to buoy 
up the monstrous body. When stripped of its blubber 
the Whale sinks at once. The mingling of the fat with 
the skin has two objects. One is to enable the Whale 
to keep its blood warm in the cold water of the frigid 
regions, fat being one of the best non-conductors of heat, 
and therefore serving to keep the heat in the body. The 
other is to enable the animal to bear the immense press- 
ure of the water when it goes down to great dej)ths. 

187. Although the Whale has lungs, like terrestrial an- 
imals, it can stay under the water for a long time. It has 
a pecuhar provision enabling it to do this. This I will 
explain. In the "First Book in Physiology" I showed 



110 NATURAL HISTORY. 

you that the great object of breathing is to change dark 
blood into red blood, and that the blood, as it returns to 
the heart from all parts of the body of a dark color, is 
sent to the lungs to be changed to red blood, before it is 
again distributed over the system. Red blood is neces- 
sary to every organ, to have life go on ; and if it could 
be supplied to all the organs without breathing, then the 
breathing could be suspended without destroying life. 
Now the Whale has large reservoirs where the red blood 
accumulates while it is up at the surface of the water 
breathing. When, therefore, it goes down, every part 
of its body is supplied with red blood from these reser- 
voirs. When the supply is gone, the Whale feels un- 
comfortable, and rises to the surface to renew the sup- 
ply. The nostrils are near the highest part of the head, 
so that it can breathe as soon as it reaches the surface. 
These orifices, and also the openings of the ears, have 
valves, which can close so tightly that, even when subject- 
ed to the pressure of a great depth of water, not a drop 
can enter. 

188. The nostrils are the blow-holes. The Whale has 
a curious apparatus for spouting. There are two large 
pouches under the nostrils, which can be filled with wa- 
ter taken in by the mouth. Here it can be retained by 
an arrangement of valves till the Whale wishes to spout ; 
and then, by a forcible compression of the pouches, the 
water is thrown upward through the blow-holes, the 
valves of which are jDushed open. 

189. The true Whales are of two kinds or families: 
1. The Spermaceti Whale, which has teeth in the lower 
jaw. 2. The Whalebone Whale, which has no teeth. 
Of the Spermaceti Whales there are two species, the 
most common of which, the Cachelot, or Sperm Whale, 
Fig. 93 (p. Ill), I will notice. When full-grown it is 
from seventy to eighty feet long. The capture of this 
animal is attended with even greater danger than that 
of the Greenland Whale, on account of its formidable 



THE WHALE TEIBE. 



Ill 




Fig. 93 ^The Sperm Whule. 

teeth. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford there is an 
under-jaw-bone of this whale, sixteen and a half feet in 
length, containing forty-eight huge teeth. It can knock 
a boat in pieces with its tail, or bite it in two with its 
jaws. In its immense head there is a very small brain, 
but there is a large reservoir of mmgled spermaceti and 
oil in nearly a liquid state. A hole is cut in its head by 
its captors, and this mixture is baled out with buckets. 
By draining and boiling, the spermaceti is obtained from 
this separate from the oil. The blubber of this whale 
is thin, but yields a fine and valuable oil. The sperma- 
ceti obtained from a Sperm Whale of ordinary size 
amounts to about ten or twelve barrels. 

190. The perfume called Ambergris is found in the in- 
testines of the Sperm Whale. It is of the consistence 
of wax, is inflammable, and has a musky odor. 

191. The Sperm Whales are gregarious, forming com- 
panies of some hundreds, with two of the largest as 
guards and leaders. Their food is fish, which they can 
swallow of a large size, for their throats are capacious 



112 "NATURAL HISTORY. 

enough to take in a body of the size of a man. But one 
young is produced at a time, and this is about fourteen 
feet long. The milk of the mother Whale is very much 
like that of quadrupeds. 

192. Whalebone Whales are as large as the Sperm 
Whales. There are two species, the Greenland Whale, 
and the Rorqual. The former is the best known, and 
is altogether the most valuable, because it furnishes the 
most blubber and the best whalebone. These whales 
have no teeth, but instead have a remarkable apparatus 
for taking their food, which consists of very small sea- 
animals of various kinds. The whalebone is the frame- 
w^ork of the food-catching apparatus ; it is in the head, 
in laminae or plates to the number of three or four hund- 
red. All of these are fringed with fibres extending down 
into the mouth. Now, when the Whale feeds, it rushes 
through the water with its huge mouth wide open, throw- 
ing out the water that enters the mouth by spouting 
through the blow-holes. The consequence is, that as the 
water passes through the fringes, the little animals in it 
are caught by them, and then are swallowed. The 
throat, in contrast with that of the Sperm Whale, is so 
narrow, that what an ox could easily swallow would 
choke this immense animal. 

193. The Dolphin family of the Cetacea includes, be- 
sides the Porpoise and the Dolphin, many animals ordi- 
narily called Whales. They all have teeth in greater 
number than any other Mammals, some of them even 
over a hundred in each jaw. The Porpoise occurs in 
large numbers in all the seas of Europe, and on the coasts 
of America. It is abundant in our bays and large rivers. 
Its length is from four to eight feet. It lives on her- 
rings, mackerel, salmon, etc. It is the most common and 
abundant of all the Cetacea. The blubber yields a very 
fine oil. Its skin is tanned, and the leather is used par- 
ticularly for the upper leather of boots and shoes. It is 
amusing to see the Porpoises rise to the surface, and 



THE WHALE TEIBE. 113 

then dive down, as they chase each other in their gam- 
bols. The Dolphin is quite as sportive as the Porpoise, 
and much more agile. It often follows ships in numer- 
ous herds, executing its playful movements. The stories 
about the beautifully-changing hues of the dying Dolphin 
are untrue ; this voracious animal is altogether unpoet- 
ical even to death. Its colors are black and white, and 
the only change which occurs is that the black, after a 
time, becomes brown, and the white gray. 

194. There are some aberrant genera of the Dolphin 
family. One of the most remarkable we have in the 
Narwhal, or Sea Unicorn, as it is commonly called. Fig. 
94. Its body is from thirty to forty feet long. It has 




Fig. 94.— The Narwhal. 



a long, straight, pointed tusk, from five to ten feet in 
length. It really has two tusks, but only one of them 
becomes long, the other not projecting sufficiently to be 
seen. There is much question about the use to which 
the animal puts this tusk. Some suppose that its chief 
purpose is to dig up sea-weed for food. Others suppose 



114 NATURAL HISTORY. 

that the prey of the animal is transfixed by it. It is, at 
any rate, a very powerful weapon, and the Narwhal has 
been known to thrust it into the oak timbers of a ship. 
This animal, formidable as it is, is often taken by the 
Greenlander, who obtains from it oil, food, weapons, and 
ropes. He uses the tusk in the manufacture of spears, 
arrows, hooks, etc. 

195. There is a family of Cetacea called the Dugong 
tribe, which is so aberrant that zoologists differ as to 
their proper place, some associating them, on accoimt of 
their thick, tough skins, with the Pachydermata, and 
some placing them with the Cetacea. They are herbiv- 
orous, and not carnivorous like the other families of the 
Cetacea, Hving mostly on sea-weed. They have stiff mus- 
taches, and, when their bodies are partly out of the water, 
they have, viewed at a distance, a somewhat human ap- 
pearance, which has given rise to the " mermaid" stories. 
These animals are called Sea-cows, Sea-calves, etc. One 
species, found in the Indian Seas, especially among the 
islands of the Indian Archipelago, is eighteen or twenty 
feet in length. In Fig. 95 you have the skeleton of this 




Fig. 95. — Skeleton of Dugong. 

singular animal. It has, you see, no hinder extremities. 
The anterior extremities are paddles, like the flippers of 
the Whale ; and the resemblance in the bones to those of 
the hand of man is very decided, the four fingers being 
present, and an attempt at a thumb. There is an animal 
similar to this found on the coast of Mexico and of the 
northern part of South America. It is, however, smaller, 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 115 

being but six or seven feet long, and on its paddles are 
short nails, by which it can drag its unwieldy body on 
the land to bask in the sun or to get food. All the ani- 
mals of this tribe are like the Whales in their paddles, 
their oily skin, their horizontally flattened tail, and their 
fish-like shape. 

Questions. — What is said of the size of animals living in water? 
How do the Whale tribe compare in size with terrestrial animals ? 
How do the Cetacea differ from all other Mammals ? What group 
of Mammals are somewhat like them ? How does the tail of Whales 
differ from that of Fishes ? What is the breadth of it ? What is 
the chief office of the flippers ? What is said of their frame-work ? 
What is the blubber ? What purposes does it serve ? Explain the 
provision which enables the Whale to stay under water so long. 
What is said of the nostrils ? Describe the spouting apparatus. 
What are the two families of Whales ? Describe the Cachelot Whale. 
What is said of its spermaceti ? How much is obtained from one 
Whale ? What is Ambergris ? What is said of the habits of Sperm 
Whales? What is said of the Whalebone Whales? What are in- 
cluded in the Dol})hin family? What is said of the Porpoise? 
What of the Dolphin? What of the Narwhal? What of the Du- 
gong family ? What are the animals of this family commonly called ? 
Where are they found ? What is said of the structui'c of the species 
represented ? 



CHAPTER XII. 

CHAEACTEKISTICS OF BIRDS. 

196. Birds form the second grand division of warm- 
blooded Vertebrates. This division is separated from 
the first division, the Mammals, by very marked charac- 
teristics, which I will point out. 1. They are oviparous 
(§ 23). 2. They do not suckle their young. 3. They are 
covered with feathers. 4. They are constructed for flight, 
with some few exceptions. 5. They have no teeth, which 
is true of only a few species of Mammals. 6. They have 
bills, which is true of only one species of Mammals, the 
Duck-billed Platypus of Australia (§133). 7. They have 



116 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



some peculiarities in the digestive organs, most birds hav- 
ing, in place of the process of mastication, a crop to soak 
their food and a gizzard to grind it. 

197. Feathers have some resemblance to hairs, but dif- 
fer from them in some important respects. A feather 
has commonly three distinct parts : a horny tube, or quill 
part; a stem proceeding from this tube; and laminae, 
which are commonly joined together by barbs or teeth 
on their edges. The laminae thus locked together enable 
the feather to press upon the air in flight. In what is 
called down the laminae are very narrow, and are entire- 
ly sejDarate. 

198. The wing may be considered as a hand with a 
feathery appendage, so that it may press upon consider- 
able air at once, and thus raise up the bird. According- 
ly, we find that the bones of the w^ing are essentially the 

same as those in the arm 
and hand of man. In Fig. 
96 we have the bones of a 
bird's wing. Comparing 
this with the correspond- 
ing part of the skeleton 
of man in Fig. 1, we have, 
I., the elbow-joint ; II., the 
Avrist ; III., the knuckle- 
jjj joint ; a, the arm-bone ; 5, 
the bones of the fore-arm ; 
c, the bones correspond- 
ing to those in the body 
of the hand ; o, the thumb- 
bone ; 1, 2, 3, 4, attempts 
at fingers. These rudi- 
mentary fingers, you see, 
are very different from the 
fingers in the wing of a 
Bat, Fig, 20. There they 
Fig. 96.~Boiies of Gyrfaicon's Wing, needed to be loug as frame- 




CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 



117 



work for the thin, membranous wmg. But here the fin- 
ger-bones are needed only for the attachment of the 
strong feathers, and such an extension of them as we 
have in the Bat would not conduce to strength, and there- 
fore would be out of place. 

199. As flying requires more strength than any thing 
else which the Bird does, the muscles of the wing are 
larger than those in any other part of the body. It is 
this which makes the breast so full. To accommodate 
these large muscles, the breast-bone has a peculiar shape. 
In man it is flat and small ; but in the Bird it is very 
large, making a sort of convex buckler on the front part 
of the skeleton, with a ridge or keel projecting from it. 
In Fig. 97 you have a front view, and in Fig. 98 a side 
view of the breast-bone of a bird. The chief muscles 





Fig. 9T. Fig. 98. 

that move the wings are fastened to the keel, and spread 
over the breast-bone. In the birds that are cooked for 
the table any one can observe that this mass of muscle or 
meat is thickest in those birds which fly most. It is much 
thicker in the Pigeon, for example, than it is in the com- 
mon Fowl. In those birds which do not fly at all there 
is little muscle on the breast, and the keel on the breast- 
bone is absent, as you may see in the skeleton of the Os- 
trich, Fig. 4. In such birds the bones and the muscles of 
the lower extremities are very large, while they are com- 
paratively small in those which are much on the wing. 



118 NATURAL HISTOKY. 

200. The amount of muscular power required for flight, 
in the air is not commonly appreciated. If we look at 
the breadth of wing in a bird, as compared with the size 
of the animal when stripped of its feathers, we can have 
some idea of the extent of wing which a man would need 
to enable him to fly. And to work efiiciently such enor- 
mous wings as he would require, he must have enormous 
muscles. Those which move the arms of the most broad- 
chested and brawny man are far from being large enough 
to enable him to fly, even if he had wings. To do this, 
he must have the keel on the breast-bone, like the bird, 
to afibrd an attachment for a thick mass of muscle. We 
see, then, why it is that all the attempts which men have 
made to fly have proved failures. It is not that the wings 
have not been properly made, but that there Avas not suf- 
ficient muscle to Avork them. 

201. As flying requires such strong exertion, it is im- 
portant that the Bird should be as light as possible. 
There is a singular contrivance for this purpose. The 
air taken into the lungs does not all stop there, but some 
of it passes thence into cells or sacs in different parts of 
the body, and also into many of the bones, which are hol- 
low for this purpose. This air apparatus is in extent pro- 
portionate to the powers of flight. Thus, in the Eagle, 
the air goes into all the bones, while in the Ostrich and 
the Penguin it goes only into the thigh-bones. 

202. The digestive organs of the Bird are very pecul- 
iar. They are the only animals that have a gizzard. This 
organ is a stomach, which has on its inside a lining as 
tough and hard as leather. This is for the purpose of 
bruising and rubbing the food, which is done by the ac- 
tion of very stout muscles. These constitute the bulk of 
the gizzard ; and they are so arranged that they squeeze 
and rub two opposite surfaces of the inside lining against 
each other. The food is therefore ground in the same 
manner as grain is between the millstones of a flour-mill. 
The power of this grinding apparatus is made still more 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 



119 



effectual by sand and small stones, which the Bird swal- 
lows with its food. In Fig. 99 you see the gizzard of a 
Turkey cut open. You observe the two semi-globular 




Fig. 99.— Gizzard of the Turkey. 

masses of muscle, and the lining covering them on the 
inside of the organ. While these grind the food, the 
gastric juice which digests it is all the time trickling 
down upon it from the gullet at a, where it oozes out 
from a great many little openings. 

203. This grinding operation of the gizzard takes the 
place of the mastication which is done by those animals 



120 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



that have teeth ; the Bird using its bill only for gather- 
ing its food, and not for masticating it. The arrange- 
ment described does not exist in full in all birds, but only 
in those that live on grains, termed granivorous birds. 
In other birds it varies according to the nature of the 
food. In those that live altogether on flesh, or on fishes, 
there is no real gizzard, but a thin and membranous stom- 
ach, for there is no need in them of any grinding and 
crushing process. 

204. There is one part of the digestive apparatus of 
birds yet to be noticed. Before the food is subjected to 
the grinding of the gizzard, it is macerated or soaked for 

d some time in the crop, as it is called, a 

sac or pouch which opens into the gul- 
let. When the grains are first swallow- 
ed, they are passed into the crop ; and 
when they are sufficiently macerated, 
they are forced out of the crop, down 
the gullet, into the gizzard to be ground. 
The crop, you see, is to the Bird what 
the paunch is to the Ruminant quadru- 
ped (§ 154), a convenient receptacle for 
the food, and a place for its maceration. 
In Fig. 100 you have a representation 
of the parts mentioned, a being the gul- 
let, & the crop, c that part of the gullet 
lig. 100. where the gastric juice is made, and d 

the gizzard. 

205. The incubation, or hatching of eggs, requires dif- 
ferent periods in different species of birds. In the Hum- 
ming-birds it is but twelve days, in the Canaries fifteen 
to eighteen, Fowls twenty-one. Ducks twenty-five, and 
Swans forty to forty-five. The object of sitting on the 
eggs is simply to provide the requisite amount of heat. 
The same degree provided in any other way will answer, 
and eggs have often been hatched by steam. The heat 
of the sun is sufficient to hatch the eggs of some birds 




CHABACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 121 

living in the tropics, as the Ostrich. The popular story 
about this bird is not true. There is no neglect on her 
part when she leaves her eggs in the sand, for when she 
is in a temperate climate, where the heat of the sun is 
not sufficient to hatch them, she sits on them. The 
Mound birds of Australia have a singular way of pro- 
viding for heat in hatching their eggs. Instead of sit- 
ting on them, they place them in mounds of decaying 
vegetable matter, which they heap up for this purpose. 
The process of decay produces all the heat that is requi- 
site. Most birds make nests, not to live in, but to hatch 
their eggs, lining them commonly with some soft mate- 
rial. The Eider-duck lines her nest with down which 
she strips from her own breast. 

206. The formation of a feathered animal from the 
simple contents "of an egg by the stimulus of heat is one 
of the most wonderful things in nature. When the bird 
is fully formed, it cuts its way out of the shell with an 
instrument furnished it for this purpose, a pointed scale 
fastened to the end of its beak. Any one can readily 
see this on the upper bill of the newly-born chicken. 
Soon after its birth this scale drops off, as the chicken 
has no farther use for it. 

207. The senses which are most developed in birds 
are the sight, smell, and hearing. The sense of touch 
in most of them is very slight ; but some, as the Duck 
tribe, have quite an acute sense of touch in their bills, 
guiding them in their search for food. The sense of 
taste is also, in most birds at least, very slight. The 
sight is generally acute, especially in birds of prey. 
Birds have a kind of third eyelid inside of the others, 
called the nictitating or Avinking membrane. It is very 
thin, and is commonly folded up in the corner of the eye 
out of sight, but it can be drawn over the whole front 
of the eye when it is needed. The bird can see through 
it, and the object of it is to diminish the light that en- 
ters the eye w^hen it is very intense. It is this which 

F 



122 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



enables the Eagle, and other bh^ds also, to look dkectly 
at the sun. The sense of smell is very acute m all bh-ds 
in which it can be of service in searching for food, as, 
for example, in those that live on carrion. While all 
birds have ears, there is only one kind, the Owl tribe, 
that has any external ear. In all others there is merely 
an opening to the passage leading to the internal appa- 
ratus of hearing, and even this is concealed among the 
feathers of the head. 

208. Birds are digitigrade, § 92. You can see this to 
be true in the case of the Ostrich, Fig. 4, if, comparing 
the bones of the leg with the same bones in man. Fig. 1, 
you begin at the thigh-bone and go downward. In Fig. 
101 you liave the bones of a bird's leg, a being the thigh- 






Fig. 101. 



Fig. 102. 



Fig. 103. 



bone, h the bones of the leg proper, c the heel-bone, long 
and extending upward, and d the bones of the foot. In 
Fig. 102 is the outline of the leg of a man, with letters 
to correspond with those of Fig. 101, that you may read- 
ily make the comparison. In Fig. 103 you have the 
perching apparatus of birds represented, and you can 
see how it is that they can sleep on their perches with- 
out falling off. There is, you observe, a large muscle in 
front of the thigh-bone ; from this a long tendon or cord, 
A, extends down the leg, and in the foot it divides into 
branches, which go to all the toes. When the muscle 
pulls on this the toes will all be bent, as every body 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS. 123 

knows who has played with a fowl's drum-stick, pulliog 
upon this tendon. Now this tendon can be pulled upon 
in the living animal, and the toes of course be bent, with- 
out any action of the muscle. For observe, that at first 
the tendon is on the front of the limb, but it passes to 
the rear before it comes to the heel-bone. The effect of 
this arrangement is, that when the bird settles down in 
perching, the bending of the limb pulls on the tendon, 
and so the toes firmly grasp the perch. This arrange- 
ment is also of service to birds of prey in securing their 
victims; for, when they have pounced upon them, by 
merely settling down with all their weight, the bent 
claws grasp them with great force. 

209. There is very great variety in the plumage of 
birds, the gayest colors apj)earing in those of tropical 
climates ; while, on the other hand, the birds of Arctic 
regions exhibit none but the duller hues. The latter, 
however, have a much larger proportion of downy feath- 
ers to keep them w^arm in the midst of the severe cold. 
With the bright and splendid colors of the tropical birds 
there is no power of song, the voice being either absent 
or disagreeable ; but in the temperate zone, while the 
plumage is ordinarily much less beautiful, there is great 
variety of song, especially in the small birds. 

210. The tail is of service in flight, being moved in 
one way and another, so as to regulate the course of the 
bird. But it is not its only use to serve as a rudder ; it 
is a part of the ornament which the Creator has given 
to this class of animals. Accordingly, it is varied much 
in its shape, arrangement, and color; and in some cases 
beauty seems to be aimed at rather than actual service, 
as in the tails of Peacocks and Birds of Paradise. 

211. The instinct which leads so many kinds of birds 
to change their climate according to the season is a won- 
der and a mystery. In a temperate climate there is a 
multitude of birds in gardens, fields, and forests in the 
summer, which for the most part disappear as the cold 



124 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

months come on. They migrate to the south, where 
the warm weather will give them the same worms or 
other food w^hich they can no longer obtain at the north. 
Different kinds of birds have each their time for migra- 
tion, which can be calculated upon with considerable ac- 
curacy. It does not depend on the degree of tempera- 
ture, although it is somewhat influenced by it, as birds go 
north sooner when the season is early than when it is late. 
212. The most mysterious part of this migration is, 
that the same birds will often return in the following 
season to the same spot which they left, although they 
have traversed in their migration hundreds, and perhaps 
even thousands of miles. This fact has been proved in 
the case of swallows by tying silken threads to their feet, 
so that there should be no mistake as to their identity. 
Spallanzani, a celebrated Italian physiologist of the last 
century, saw the same couples return to their old nests 
for eighteen years in succession. 

Questions. — "What are the two grand divisions of warm-blooded 
Vertebrates? In what respects do Birds differ from Mammals? 
What is said of feathers? What analogy does the office of a wing 
bear to that of a hand ? Point out the resemblance between them in 
their frame- work. What is said of the breast-bone in birds? What 
is said of the muscular power required for flying ? What of the in- 
ability of man to fly ? W^hat essentially contributes to the lightness 
of birds ? Describe the digestive apparatus of birds. How is it 
varied in diff'erent kinds of birds ? What is said of the crop ? What 
is said of the different periods of incubation ? What is the real agent 
of the process ? What is said of the Ostrich ? What of the Mound 
Birds ? What is said of the nests of birds ? What of the formation 
of the bird in the egg ? How does it get out ? What is said of the 
development of the senses of birds ? What of the nictitating mem- 
brane ? What of the ear ? What is said of the legs of birds ? De- 
scribe the arrangement of the perching apparatus. How is it used in 
taking prey ? What is said of the plumage of birds ? What of their 
powers of song? What are the two uses of the tail? What is said 
of the migration of birds ? Is it only, or even the chief object of this, 
to find a suitable temperature ? How much influence has the weather ' 
on migration ? What is the most wonderful fact in regard to it ? 



BIKDS OF PKEY. 125 



CHAPTER XIII. 

BIRDS OF PREY. 

213. There are about five thousand known species of 
birds. They are classified mostly according to the fiDrm- 
ation of their beaks and feet, these being parts which in- 
dicate the diet and the habits. There are two grand di- 
visions of Birds — Land Birds and Water Birds. Of the 
Land Birds there are five orders : 1. Raptores {rapio^ to 
seize), Birds of Prey. 2. Insessores (insido^ to sit), 
Perchers. 3. Scansores {scando^ to climb), Climbers. 4. 
Rasores {rado^ to scratch), Scratchers. 5. Cursores {cur- 
rOj to run). Runners. There are two orders of Water 
Birds: 1. Grallatores {grallce^ stilts), Waders. 2. Nata- 
tores {iiatator^ a swimmer). Swimmers. 

214. The Raptores, or Raveners, have bills which are 
stout, sharp-edged, and sharp-iDointed. The upper bill, 
or mandible {maiido^ to eat), is longer than the lower, 
forming a pointed hook with which the bird tears its 
prey. It also has a notch on each edge, which obviously 
can render assistance in tearing. The legs are short and 
stout, being very muscular, and the feet have four toes 
with strong claAVS or talons. Three of these claws are in 

front and one in the rear. In 
Fig. 104 are represented the 
beak and talons of a bird of 
prey. The strength of wing 
of the Raptores is adapted to 
their habits and their modes 

Fig. 104.— Claw and Beak of a Bird of taking their food. ThuS 

^^ ^^^^' the Eagle, that pounces down 

upon its prey, has great strength and breadth of w^ing ; 
while the Owl, which approaches its prey slyly and noise- 
lessly, has comparatively small and feeble wings. 





126 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



215. The Rapt ores always live in pairs, and they 
choose their mates for life. It is remarkable, also, that 
in a large proportion of this order the females are larger 
than the males, probably because they have the care of 
the young birds, which are at first weak and blind, like 
the young of beasts of prey among Mammals. The col- 
ors of the plumage of this order are generally dull, brown- 
ish varied with white. They have no song, and utter 
only hoarse sounds. They construct their nests in a rude 
way in high situations, on the ledges of rocks, the tops of 
lofty trees, etc. 

216. There are three families in this order : 1. The Fal- 
con family, including the Falcons, Eagles, and Hawks. 
2. The Vultures. 3. The Owls, which are nocturnal birds 
of prey (noa;, night), the two first families being diurnal 
{clies^ day). 

217. The true Falcons are the most daring of all birds 
of prey. They are very symmetrical in form and grace- 
ful in flight. The Gyrfalcon, Fig. 105, is the most beau- 
tiful of the tribe, and 
the largest, it being 
nearly two feet long. 
It is found on the rocky 
coasts of Norway and 
Iceland. These birds 
are very courageous in 
defending their young. 
A pair of them attack- 
ed Dr. Richardson, 
while climbing near 
their nest, flying in cir- 
cles around him, and 
now and then dashing 
at his face with loud 
screams. The Falcons 
were used in the once 

Fig. 105.— Gyrfaicon= favorito sport of En- 




BIRDS OF PKEY. 127 

gland, called hawking or falconry. Another bh*d of this 
tribe, somewhat smaller than the Gyrfalcon, was common- 
ly used for this purpose. It is the Peregrine Falcon, 
found in most parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. 
The boldness of this bird is such that it was employed 
even in taking so formidable a bird as the Heron. The 
Falcon was held hooded on its master's hand until the 
Heron was aroused from its retreat ; then, on being set 
free, it pursued the Heron aloft, each bird striving to as- 
cend above the other. The Falcon was always victorious ; 
and at length, with a sweep, it pounced on its victim, and 
both then came to the ground together. The part of the 
sportsman was to reach the place of conflict as soon as 
possible, and aid the Falcon in vanquishing its prey. So 
fashionable was this sport at one time in England, that 
persons of rank, when they appeared in public, generally 
had a hawking-bird on the hand. 

218. The true Falcons were formerly designated as no- 
ble birds of prey, on account of their use in falconry, and 
the rest of the family were teraied ignoble birds of prey. 
The Eagles are the largest birds of the latter class. 
There are several species, all of which have the feathers 
extend down on the legs even to the talons. That mag- 
nificent bird, the Golden Eagle, is among the most wide- 
ly diffused of all species of Birds, being found on the Con- 
tinent of Europe, in the north of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, in Asia, and in North America, from the tem-. 
perate to the arctic regions. It has ever been regarded 
as an emblem of might and courage, holding, as " king 
of birds," the same rank among them as the Lion does 
among beasts. With its powerful wings this immense 
bird soars to a great height, and is a grand object amid 
the rudeness and sublimity of the localities which it fre- 
quents. Its acute vision enables it to see its prey at a 
great distance, and it darts down upon it with a siooop 
or rush like that of the Falcons, but more terrific and 
overpowering from its greater size. 



128 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



219. The nest of the Eagle is made of sticks, twigs, 
etc., and is generally on the ledge of some precipice, as 
seen in Fig-, 106. In ''The Land and the Book" of 




Fig. 106.— Eagle and Nest. 

Thomson, he describes very graphically the return of the 
Eagle to its nest. After making several gyrations, it 
poises for a moment, and then, " like a bolt, with wings 
collapsed, down it comes head foremost, and, sinking far 
below its eyrie, it rounds to in a grand parabola, and 
then, with one or two backward flaps of its huge pinions, 
like the wheels of a steam-boat reversed, it lands in safe- 
ty among its clamorous children." The food of this bird 
consists of sea-birds, the smaller quadrupeds, as hares, 
rabbits, etc., and sometimes lambs, sheep, and even larger 



BIKDS OF PREY. 



129 



animals. In one eyrie in Germany were found the skele- 
tons of three hundred ducks and forty hares ; but the 
owner of the nest had undoubtedly killed, besides these, 
many sheep, fawns, etc., which it had stripped of their 
flesh, they being too large to be carried away entire to 
such a height. 

220. The Osprey, or Fishing Hawk, Fig. 107, an aber- 
rant species of Eagle, is 
spread over the whole of 
Europe, a part of Asia, 
and also portions of North 
America. As its name 
indicates, it lives on fish, 
which it obtains by dash- 
ing down into the water. 
Its nest is composed of 
sticks, sea -weed, grass, 
and turf, laid among the 
branches of a tree. As it 
is repaired and added to 
every year, there is some- 
times enough to make a 

cart-load. This bird, besides living on fish, differs from 
the true Eagles also in having the legs covered with 
scales instead of feathers. 

221. The White-headed or Bald Eagle inhabits most 
parts of North America. It is the figure of this Eagle 
which is on the national standard of this country. The 
food of this bird is various. While it preys on such an- 
imals as lambs, pigs, etc., it will eat fish whenever it can 
take it from the Fishing Hawk. If it sees this bird rise 
from the water with a fish in its talons, it starts off at 
once in the pursuit. Wilson thus describes the struggle 
that ensues : " Each exerts his utmost to mount above 
the other, displaying, in these rencounters, the most ele- 
gant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencumbered 
Eagle rapidlv advances, and is just on the point of reach- 

F2 




Fig. lOT.— Osprey. 



130 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

ing his opponent, when with a sudden scream, probably 
of despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish. 
The Eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a 
more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it 
in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill- 
gotten booty silently away to the woods." Dr. Franklin 
thus speaks of this Eagle : " For my part, I wish the Bald 
Eagle had not been chosen as the representative of our 
country. He is a bird of bad moral character ; he does 
not get his living honestly. You may have seen him 
perched upon some dead tree, where, too lazy to fish for 
himself, he watches for the labors of the Fishing Hawk ; 
and when that diligent bird has taken a fish, and is bear- 
ing it to its nest for the support of his mate and young 
ones, the Bald Eagle pursues him, and takes it from him. 
With all this injustice, he is never in good case, but, like 
those among men who live by sharping and robbing, he 
is generally poor, and very often lousy. Besides, he is a 
rank coward ; the little king-bird, not bigger than a spar- 
row, attacks him boldly and drives him out of the dis- 
trict. He is therefore by no means a proper emblem for 
the brave and honest Cincinnati of America, who have 
driven out all the Mng-hirds from our country, though 
exactly fitted for that order of knights which the French 
call chevaliers d"* industries 

222. The Secretary Bird, Fig. 108 (p. 131), derives its 
name from the tufts of feathers at the back of its head, 
having some resemblance to pens stuck behind the ear. 
It is allied both to the Eagles and the Falcons, but its 
exact place is a subject of dispute. It inhabits South 
Africa, Senegambia, and the Philippine Islands. It lives 
on snakes and reptiles, which it devours in great numbers. 
When attacking a snake, it uses one wing as a shield, 
striking the snake with the other till it is senseless; 
then, with a blow with its beak, it splits the snake's 
head, and swallows the animal. In the crop of one of 
those birds there were found eleven large lizards, three 



BIRDS OP PREY. 



131 




Fig. 108,— The Secretary Bird. 

serpents, each a yard in length, eleven small tortoises, 
and a great quantity of locusts and other insects. 

223. The Hawks constitute a section of the Falcon 
family, allied to the true Falcons, but having short legs 
and tails. The Goshawk, Fig. 109 (p. 132), is the finest 
bird of this tribe, distinguished alike for its large size, 
its beautiful plumage, and its elegant shape. It comes 
nearer to the Falcons than any other of the Hawks. 
When it takes its prey it strikes its victim to the ground 
by the force with which it dashes through the air. Its 
food consists of hares, squirrels, pheasants, and even some 
quite large birds. This bird abounds all over the wood- 
ed portions of Europe, and a similar species is found in 
this country. 

224. The Kites, another section of the Falcon family, 
are jDarticularly distinguished by their long wings and 
forked tails. Their flight is remarkably easy and grace- 
ful, and they have the power of remaining a long time 



132 



NATURAL HISTOBY. 



M. 
#^" 




Fig. 109.— Tlie Goshawk. 

poised almost without motion. They sweep through the 
air in wide circles with outspread wings, using the tail 
as a rudder ; and they often mount up so high as to be- 
come nearly invisible. Like the Eagles, therefore, they 
have a wide range of vision in searching for prey ; but, 
instead of directly rushing, like the eagles, upon their vic- 
tim, they skim it, as it were, from the surface of the earth 
or the Avater, bearing it away in their talons. Their prey 
consists of moles, rats, mice, young poultry, and small 
reptiles. They wall not refuse carrion. Some species 
perform the office of scavengers in Turkey, Egypt, India, 
etc., appearing for this purpose in large numbers in the 
streets of some of the cities. Kites performed this use- 
ful office in London as late as the times of Henry VIII. 
One of the most remarkable of these kinds is the Amer- 
ican Swallow-tailed Kite, Eig. 110 (p. 133). It is found 
in South America, and goes as far north as 40 degrees 
of latitude . Its food consists of insects, small snakes, 
lizards, and frogs. It sweeps over the fields close to 
the ground, and sometimes, seizing a snake by the neck, 



BIEDS OF PEEY. 



133 







Fig. 110.— The Swallow-tailed Kite. 

carries it off to devour it in the air, as represented in the 

figure. 

225. As the Hawks may 
be regarded as an inferior 
kind of Falcon, so the Buz- 
zards may be considered as 
having a similar relation to 
the Eagles. In their flight 
they have neither the soar 
and swoop of the Falcons and 
Eagles, the arrow-like dash 
of the Hawks, nor the wind- 
\ ing sweep of the Kites ; but 
they sail along easily and rap- 
idly in quest of their prey, 
which is much like that of 
the Kites and Hawks. The 
Fig. 111.— The common Buzzaivd. coiumon Buzzard, Fig. Ill, 




134 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

is found in the wooded countries of Europe, and the bor- 
dering countries of Asia, and also in the fur countries 
of North America. There are several other species of 
Buzzards in this country. 

226. We now come to the second great family of the 
Raptores — the Vultures. You have seen that the birds 
of the Falcon family have for their office, in the general 
economy of nature, to keep within bounds the number 
of small birds and quadrupeds, and that their head-quar- 
ters are chiefly in the cold and temperate regions. The 
Vulture tribe, on the other hand, have for their office to 
cleanse the earth from the dead bodies of animals that 
have died from various causes, and their head-quarters 
are chiefly between the tropics. Still, they are, for the 
most part, inhabitants of mountainous regions, some of 
them dwelling on the confines of perpetual snow. They 
descend, however, to the warm regions below in search 
of their food. Vultures devour bodies that Hyenas and 
Jackals could not reach ; for none but birds can reach 
carcasses that are in the midst of the dense and tangled 
forests of the tropics, or on the steep sides of their Al- 
pine ranges. 

227. The distinguishing characteristic in the appear- 
ance of the Vultures is the absence of feathers on the 
head and neck, while round the bottom of the latter there 
is a ruff of soft feathers in a loose fold of skin, within 
which the bird withdraws its neck, and even the greater 
part of its head, when, in a semi-torpid state, as motionless 
as a statue, it digests the food with which it has gorged 
itself. This absence of feathers on the head and neck is 
an example of adaptation, for if they were upon this part 
of the body they would become exceedingly foul by con- 
tact with the carrion on which the Vulture feeds. The 
whole plumage of this bird is deficient in the neat and 
regular appearance of that of the Falcon family, and yet 
it can not b^ called a filthy animal, for it washes itself 
often, and spreads out its wings to the sun to be dried. 



BIRDS OF PREY. 



135 



228. The Condor of the Andes, Fig. 112, is the most 
remarkable of the Vultures in regard to size and strength, 




Fig. 112.— The Condor. 

and the height to which it soars. It is about four feet 
long, and the expanse of its wings measures nine or ten 
feet ; it is said to have reached in some cases even thir- 
teen feet. Its habitual residence is ten or fifteen thou- 
sand feet above the level of the sea, and it is often seen 
soaring much higher than this. Besides feeding on car- 
rion, it will often attack lambs and young goats, and 
when two are together, they will attack so formidable an 
animal as the Llama, or even the Puma. 

229. The bird commonly called the Turkey Buzzard 
belongs to the Vulture family. It inhabits a great range 
of country, being found in all the warmer parts of this 
continent. It lives on all sorts of food. It sucks the 
eggs and devours the young of many species of birds, 
and will even eat the dead bodies of its own species. It 



136 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



is daily seen in the streets of the southern cities acting 
the part of a scavenger. I once saw two of them, near 
the market in Charleston, quarreling for the possession 
of the entrails of an animal. 

230. Some of the Vultures approach the Eagle in their 
form and habits. This is the case with the Bearded Vul- 
ture of the Alps, Fig. 113. It has this name from the 




Fig. 113. — Bearded Vulture of the Alps. 

long hair-like feathers with which each nostril is covered. 
As in the Eagles, the head, neck, and legs are covered 
with feathers, but in the characters of the eye, beak, and 
talons it is like the Vultures. Besides carrion, it feeds 
on the smaller quadrupeds which it takes as prey. It is 
very bold, and when very hungry will attack larger ani- 
mals, and even men. It is found not only about the 
Alps, but also among the mountain ranges of Africa and 
Western Asia. 

231. The Owls constitute the third family of the Rap- 
tores. They are the only birds of prey which are noc- 
turnal in their habits, and all their peculiarities are adapt- 
ations to these habits. These I will notice. The eyes 
are very large, with widely opening pupils, so as to ad- 



BIKDS OF PKEY. 137 

mit a great deal of light; they are also surrounded with 
a disk of feathers of a light color, which serves to direct 
'the light, striking it in upon the eye. The nictitating 
membrane is very conspicuous, it being needed to shut 
out some of the light in broad day ; to open its eyes 
widely then, and without the covering of this membrane, 
would dazzle the Owl exceedingly. Its head is very 
large and round, which is owing mostly to some cells 
that are connected with the organ of hearing, rendering 
that sense very acute ; this is of essential service to it in 
taking its prey by night. Owls are the only birds that 
have an external ear, § 206. It is covered by feathers, 
and in some species by a sort of lid, which the bird can 
open or shut at pleasure. 

232. The plumage of the Owls is very peculiar. It is 
downy, partly to keep them warm, but mostly to enable 
them to approach their prey noiselessly. Their flight is 
so noiseless that they seem borne along on the air like 
a tuft of down. The food of the larger species consists 
of hares, rabbits, fawns, birds, etc., and that of the smaller, 
of mice, rats, moles, small reptiles, and the larger insects. 
They take these either by night or in the twilight ; and 
we find this family most abundant in those portions of 
the globe where the twilight is most prolonged — the 
cold and temperate regions. There are some aberrant 
species in which the habits are diurnal more than noc- 
turnal, and, consequently, the characteristics mentioned 
are not fully developed in them. The typical species, in 
which the development of these peculiarities is complete, 
scarcely move during the day. They remain at rest upon 
their perch, with eyes half closed, and an amusing air of 
gravity ; and when aroused in any way they do not fly 
ofi*, but raise themselves up, and assume grotesque atti- 
tudes, making ludicrous motions. 

233. The Barn Owl, Fig. 114 (p. 138), is widely dif- 
fused through the temperate regions of Europe and this 
country. It is a very useful animal in destroying rats 



138 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



and mice, and its presence 
about barns and dove-cots 
should be encouraged. It 
conceals itself in the day- 
time in old trees, in barn- 
lofts, etc., and at night sal- 
lies forth in search of its 
prey. 

234, Of the aberrant 
species, the Snowy Owl, 
Fig. 115, is one of the 
largest. You see that this 
has not the disk around 
the eye which the Barn 
Owl has, and its shape is 
much like that of the Eagle tribe. This bird is found in 
the northern regions of both hemispheres. Its snowy 




Fig. 114.— The Barn Owl. 




Fig. 115 The Snowy Owl. 



PERCHING BIRDS. 139 

white plumage, from which it gets its name, makes it a 
very beautiful animal. But its loud voice is very terrific 
in the cheerless solitudes which it inhabits. It seeks its 
prey in the daytime, darting upon them from above, and 
seizing them with its stout talons, its victims being 
hares, various birds, and sometimes fish. 

Questions. — How many known species of Birds are there ? In what 
way are they classified ? What are the two divisions of Birds ? What 
are the orders of Land-birds ? What of the Water-birds ? Describe 
the characteristics of the Kaptores. What is said of their habits? 
What of their plumage ? Of their voice ? Into what families is this 
order divided? What is said of the true Falcons? What of the 
Gyrfalcon ? What of the sport of Falconry ? What is the distinc- 
tion between noble and ignoble birds of prey ? What is said of the 
Golden Eagle ? What of the Eagle's nest ? What of its return to 
it? What of its food ? What is said of the Osprey? What of the 
Bald Eagle ? What does Franklin say of it ? What is said of the 
Secretary Bird ? How do the Hawks dilFer from the Falcons ? What 
is said of the Goshawk ? What is said of the Kites ? What of the 
American Swallow-tailed Kite ? What is said of the Buzzards ? 
How does the office of the Vultures differ from that of the Falcon 
family ? Where do they live ? What peculiarities of appearance do 
they present ? What is said of the Condor ? What of the Turkey 
Buzzard ? What of the Bearded Vulture ? What are the peculiari- 
ties of the Owls ? What are their habits ? What is said of the Barn 
Owl ? What of the Snowy Owl ? 



CHAPTER XIV, 

PERCHING BIRDS. 

235. The second order of land-birds, that of the In- 
sessores, or Perchers, is the most numerous and varied 
of all the orders. It includes all the tribes living in 
trees, with the exception of the rapacious birds and the 
climbers. Other birds perch, but the birds of this or- 
der have their feet formed especially for this. The toes 
are three before and one behind, the latter being on 
the same level with the others. They are slender and 



140 NATURAL HISTORY. 

flexible, with long and slightly-curved claws. The legs 
of these birds are not stout, for they are most of the 
time on the wing; and, on the other hand, the wings 
and muscles are very large in proportion to the size of 
the body. The plumage varies much, but, on the whole, 
this order excels all the others in the beauty and variety 
of its colors. The male is commonly larger than the fe- 
male, and its colors are usually more gay. The perch ers 
live in pairs, and build their nests in trees and bushes 
with some few exceptions, showing considerable skill in 
their construction. The singing-birds belong chiefly to 
this order, the only other singers being among the Scan- 
sores. As the characteristics of birds are most fully de- 
veloped in this order, it is the typical order of the class. 
236. There is much variety in the food of the difierent 
kinds of perching birds, and their beaks present difler- 
ences corresponding to the nature of the food. Taking 
the form of the beak as the basis of division, there are 
four groups in this order: 1. Conirostres (comcs^ a cone, 
and rostrimi^ a beak), cone-billed birds, or birds having a 
cone-shaped beak. The greater portion of these are omniv- 
orous, § 93, but some are exclusively granivorous. The 
Crows and Finches are examples of this group. In Fig. 




Fig. 116.— Bill of a Grosbeak. 



116 is a representation of a cone-bill, the bill of a Gros- 
beak. 2. DentiTostres (c?6^5, a tooth, and rostrum)^ tooth- 



PERCHING BIRDS, 



141 



billed birds. These have, as you see in Fig. 117, the head 
of a Shrike or Butcher-bird, a notch or tooth near the 
extremity of the upper bill or mandible. This is like the 




Fig. 117.— Head of Shrike. 

notch seen in the upper mandible of birds of prey (§ 214) ; 
and accordingly we find that those which have this notch 
well developed are really birds of prey, living on small 
birds and reptiles, as well as the insects and worms which 
are the common food of all this group. The Shrikes, 
Thrushes, and Warblers are examples of this division. 
3. Tenuirostres (tenuis^ thin, slender, and rostrimi)^ slen- 
der-billed birds. These slender bills are specially fitted 
either for sucking up vegetable juices or for picking up 
insects. The Humming-birds are the typical birds of 
this group. 4. Fissirostres {fissitra^ a slit, and rostritm)^ 
gaping -billed birds. The bills or mandibles are very 
broad and flat toward their base, and the slit or fissure 
between them is carried far back under the eye. This 
arrangement gives them, when the mandibles are moved 
apart, a very broad and widely-opened mouth, as seen in 
the Goatsucker, Fig. 1 1 8 (p. 1 42) . This, you see, is strong- 
ly in contrast with Fig. 116. The purpose of this conform- 
ation is to allow these birds to take insects on the wing. 



142 NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. lis Goatsucker. 

wliich they do, passing raj^idly through the ah' with open 
mouth, as in the representation of the Goatsucker. The 
Swallows and Kingfishers belong to this group. 

I now go on to notice these groups, giving some few 
specimens of each. 

237. The principal food of most of the Cone -hilled 
Perchers consists of seeds and grains. Hence the need 
of the stout cone-shaped beak to pick out the seeds and 
to crush them. The chief families of this group are the 
Finches, Crows, Starlings, Birds of Paradise, Cross-bills, 
and Horn-bills. Most of these birds are more or less do- 
mesticable, and some of them are capable of considerable 
education. 

238. The Finches are a very extensive family, includ- 
ing the Larks, Sparrows, Grosbeaks, Buntings, Linnets, 
etc. None of them are of large size, and some of them 
are very small. They have a marked general resem- 
blance to each other in appearance and habits. They 
tenant fields, groves, hedgerows, and woodlands, feeding 
chiefly on grains and seeds, and occasionally upon in- 
sects. Many of them are great songsters. They are 



PEECHING BIEDS. 143 

commonly hardy birds, and their distribution is almost 
universal, some species of them being found in all parts 
of the globe where animals can live. They are charac- 
terized by short and thick beaks, and the two mandibles 
fit each other so well that, when they are together, the 
beak looks like a short cone, with a mere slit from the 
point to the base, as seen in Fig. 116. The great strength 
seen in the beaks of these birds is needed in opening the 
woody capsules covering the seeds which constitute a 
portion of their food. 

239. I can notice but a few of this family. There are 
many of the Grosbeaks in this country, but the most 
beautiful and famous of them is the Cardinal Grosbeak, 
or Redbird. It is not only splendid in its colors, bat in 
its song also. It is one of the prominent birds of the 
Middle and Southern States, and some stragglers get as 
far north as New England. The American Goldfinch^ or 
Yellow-bird^ one of the finest of the Finch family, lives on 
the seeds of hemp, the sunflower, and the thistle. From 
its fondness for the seeds of the latter it is often called 
the Thistlefinch. This bird can be educated to do many 
things, as drawing its drink from a glass. The Sparrows 
are an interesting group in this family. There are many 
species, but the two most common in this country are the 
Song Sparrow, one of the earliest warblers of the sjDring, 
nnd the Chipping-bird, so familiar to every one. There 
is a brown Sparrow very much like the Chipping Spar- 
row, but a more shy bird, brighter in color, and having a 
longer tail. Just before migrating in the autumn to the 
south, these birds, losing their shyness, come nearer to 
the habitations of men, and are seen flitting about in little 
flocks. The common Snoiobird is one of the Finches. 
This hardy and numerous species, common to both con- 
tinents, comes from the north in flocks into the United 
States in October and November, on their way south. 
The Bobolink, or Ricebird, as it is called as it goes 
south, is also one of this family. 



144 NATURAL HISTORY. 

240. The birds of the Crow family are among the lar- 
gest of the Perchers. They are bold but crafty birds, 
showing considerable intelligence, and, when domestica- 
ted, have powers of imitation similar to those of the Par- 
rot. They live in societies. The largest of the family is 
the Raven, well known in a great range of climate in 
both hemispheres. It has a solemn look, and has always 
been deemed a bird of ill omen. The Rook, so common 
in England, is nearly like the common Crow of this comi- 
try. Of both it may be said that the good which they 
do in destroying grubs, which are injurious to vegetation, 
more than compensates for the harm which they do in 
pulling up the young corn or potato cuttings. The Jays 
are of the Crow family. The most beautiful of these is 
the Blue Jay of this country. This bird has a great an- 
tipathy to Owls, and when it discovers one, it rouses, by 
its boisterous vociferations, a noisy troop of birds of va- 
rious kinds. The Owl receives all this Avith a quiet grav- 
ity, and, watching his opportunity, at length, on noiseless 
wing, slips away from his annoying company. 

241. The birds of the Starling family are in form and 
habits quite like the Crow family, but are much smaller. 
The Meadow Lark of this country is one of them. The 
Baltimore Oriole, one of a numerous group in this family, 
is a very interesting and beautiful bird. It is called by 
various names : the Golden Oriole, Golden Robin, Fire- 
bird, and Fire Hangbird. Of this last name the first part 
was suggested by its bright orange color flashing in the 
light, and the latter part comes from its hanging nest, 
which is woven from hemp or flax. To this family be- 
longs that singular bird of Australia, the Bower-bird, Fig. 
119 (p. 145). This bird builds a bower of twigs, inter- 
woven so as to meet above, forming a sort of tunnel. 
The entrance to this is decorated with any brilliant arti- 
cle that the bird can find, as shells and feathers. No 
other use has been discovered for this bower but that of j 
a play-ground, the birds being seen to run through and 



PERCHING BIRDS. 



145 




Fig 119 Bower-bird. 



around it in a sport- 
ive manner. 

242. The bills of 
the Birds of Paradise 
are so long and slen- 
der that some nat- 
uralists have placed 
this family among 
the Tenuirostres. 
They are confined to 
New Guinea and the 
neighboring islands. 
They are distinguish- 
ed for their remarka- 
ble plumes, which are 
of different kinds in 
the various species, 
usually consisting of 




Fig. 120.— Bird of Paradise. 

G 



146 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



feathers prolonged from the shoulder-tufts or from the 
tail. In the species in Fig. 120 (p. 145) there is a most bril- 
liant display of colors. The body, breast, and lower parts 
are of a deep rich brown ; the front set close with black 
feathers shot with green ; the throat is of a rich golden 
green ; the head yellow ; the sides of the tail have a long, 
full, splendid plume of downy feathers of a soft yellow 
color. The poetical story that this bird lives on dew, is, 
of course, false, and its food consists of grasshoppers and 
other insects, together with seeds and figs. 

243. The Cross-bill family are distinguished by the 
crossing of the points of the beak, as seen in Fig. 121, 

and a horny scoop at the 
tip of the tongue. The bird 
uses these tools in obtain- 
ing the seeds of the fir and 
pine cones, on which it lives. 
The process is this : the 
points of the closed beak 
are insinuated beneath the 
scales of the cone, and then, 
by a sideioise motion of the 
mandibles, separating the 
points farther from each 
other, the scale is raised, so 
as to allow the horny scoop 
of the tongue to dislodge the seed and carry it into the 
mouth. It can also, with its powerful beak, extract ker- 
nels from hard shells. It will cut an apple in two to get 
at the pips. When confined in a cage, it very dexterous- 
ly draws the ends of the wires from the wood-work, and 
soon sets itself free. There are three species of Cross- 
bills in this country. 

244. The Horn-bill family are remarkable for the very 
large size of the beak, and for an extraordinary protuber- 
ance with which it is surmounted, as seen in the Rhinoc- 
eros Horn -bill, Fig. 122 (p. 14?). This enormous bill, 




Fig. 121.— Cross-biU. 



PERCHIKG BIBDS. 



147 




Fig. 122. — Rhinoceros Horn-bill. 

with its appendage, is not as heavy as it appears, for its 
structure is of a light, honeycomb character. The upper 
protuberance is hollow, and it is supposed that it serves 
as a sort of sounding-board, to give by its reverberations 
force to the roaring cry of the bird. There are several 
species found in India and Africa. 

245. Of the division of the Perchers called Dentiros- 
tres, or Tooth-billed, there are five families : the Shrikes, 
or Butcher-birds, Warblers, Thrushes, Fly-catchers, and 
Chatterers or Wax wings. The notch in the upper man- 
dible which makes the tooth-like projection, § 234, is not 
always deep, and is sometimes wanting. In such a case 
the proper place of the bird in the classification is known 
by its resemblance in other respects to the true tooth- 
billed species. There are some, indeed, whose charac- 
teristics are so intermediate between the Conirostres 
and the Dentirostres, that zoologists differ as to the 



145 NATURAL HISTORY. 

group to which they properly belong. The Shrikes, or 
Butcher-birds, are the typical family of the Dentirostral 
group, having the tooth-like projection very prominent, 
as seen in Fig. 117. They may be styled the Raveners 
of the order of Perchers. In their habits they resemble 
the Raptorial birds. They sit motionless on their perch 
watching for their prey, which consists of small birds, 
quadrupeds, and reptiles, and the larger insects, such as 
grasshoppers. It is by a sudden darting movement that 
they take their prey. Many of them have the curious 
habit of impaling their victims upon thorns, showing how 
appropriate is their name ; and they sometimes do this to 
so many more than they need for themselves, that some 
are left to dry and decay in this position. Mr. Nuttal 
says of the American Shrike that it has great powers of 
imitation, which it uses sometimes to decoy other birds 
into a near approach, so that it may make them its vic- 
tims. Its murderous propensity is very strong. One 
of them, it is related by Mr. J. Brown, of Cambridge, at- 
tacked a cage in a Avindow containing two Canaries. In 
its fright one of the little birds put its head through the 
bars, which was snapped oif by the Butcher-bird, leaving 
the dead body in the bottom of the cage. The next day, 
Avhen the cage was in the room, this bold murderer en- 
tered for another attack, but was driven off. 

246. The family of Warblers consists of small birds 
having rather long and slender bills, with the tip slight- 
ly curved and notched. It contains a large proportion 
of those species which are most remarkable for their 
powers of song. Among them are the Bluebird and 
Chickadee of this country, and the Nightingale of Eu- 
rope. Of this last Izaak Walton thus quaintly speaks : 
"But the Nightingale, another of my airy creatures, 
breathes such sweet, loud music out of her instrumental 
throat, that it might make mankind to think that mira- 
cles are not ceased. He that at midnight, when the very 
laborer sleeps securely, should hear, as I have very often, 



PERCHING EIEDS. 149 

the clear airs, the sweet descents, the natural rising and 
falling, the doubling and redoubling of her voice, might 
well be lifted above earth, and say. Lord, what music 
hast thou provided for the saints in heaven, when thou 
affordest bad men such music on earth !" Mr. Wood re- 
marks of the song of this bird, " It must be borne in 
mind that not only in this bird, but in other singing 
birds, the male is the vocalist, so that Milton's address 
to the ' sweet songstress^ is, unfortunately, not quite so 
correct as poetical ; a misfortune of frequent occurrence." 
247. The Warblers are spread over almost the entire 
globe. Audubon reckons forty-four species on the Amer- 
can continent. Their great office seems to be to prevent 
the too great increase of the insects which are found on 
twigs and leaves, in buds and flowers, and in the crevices 
of trees, their bills being well adapted for their capture. 
They are generally migratory birds, going south in the 
autumn, when the insects disappear, and coming north 
again in spring, when their natural prey, awakened to 
activity, come forth from their winter-quarters. 

Questions. — ^What does the order of Insessores include? What 
are the characteristics and habits of birds of this order? Give the 
three groups of Perchers, and their chief characteristics. What is 
the food of the Cone-billed group? What families does it include? 
What birds does the Finch family contain ? What are their charac- 
teristics and habits ? What is said of the Grosbeaks ? Of the Yel- 
low-bird ? Of the Sparrows ? What other birds are mentioned as 
belonging to this family ? What are the characteristics of the Crow 
family ? - What is said of the Blue Jay ? What of the Starling fam- 
ily ? What of the Baltimore Oriole ? Of the Bower-bird ? Of the 
Birds of Paradise ? What is said of the Cross-bill family ? What 
of the Horn-bill family ? What are the families in the division of 
Dentirostres ? What is said of the notched bill as a distinguishing 
characteristic ? What birds form the typical family of this group ? 
What are their habits ? What is said of the American Shrike ? How 
are the Warblers characterized ? Mention some of them. What is 
said of the Nightingale ? What is said of the distribution of the 
Warblers ? What of their office ? 



150 NATURAL HISTOEY. 



CHAPTER XV. 

PERCHING BIRDS — Continued, 

I NOW go on to consider the remaining families of the 
Dentirostral group of the Perchers. 

248. The Thrushes form a very numerous and diversi- 
fied family. They are almost universally distributed, ap- 
pearing in nearly every variety of climate. Besides the 
insects on which they live in common with the Warblers, 
they eat, also, snails, earthworms, and various berries. 
They are generally larger than the Warblers. Many of 
them are celebrated songsters. The American Mocking- 
bird is one of the most prominent. This bird is very 
abundant in the warmer portions of the United States, 
and is found also in the northern portions of South 
America; it is sometimes found as far north as Rhode 
Island, but not far inland. Like the Nightingale of Eu- 
rope, it has a dull plumage, but it is graceful in form, 
and with its animated, active air while singing, has then 
considerable beauty. Its natural notes are very fine, 
and it has powers of imitation surpassing in variety every 
other bird. It seems to take special delight in abrupt 
transitions among sounds that are totally unlike, passing, 
for example, from the creaking of a wheelbarrow^ or the 
sound of a saw, to the sweet song of a Canary. 

249. To this family belongs the American Robin. This 
bird is very widely diffused in this country, being found 
in Oregon, and even at Nootka Sound. It is a very fa- 
miUar bird, and a favorite one, partly because it comes 
so early in the spring, and is so late in emigrating south, 
and partly from its having the same name with the Eu- 
ropean Redbreast, in whose praise there has always so 
much been said, both in prose and poetry. The two 



PERCHING BIRDS. 151 

must not be confounded ; the European bird belongs to 
a dififerent family, the Warblers ; it is smaller, and has 
greater compass and variety of song. The American 
Robin, however, can be educated to imitate various 
birds, and even to sing tunes, and it is amusing to hear 
it pipe out so solemn a strain as that of Old Hundred. 
The European bird is much more familiar than our Robin, 
sometimes, in winter, tapping at the window, or even 
entering the house in search of crumbs. 

250. One of the most singular of the Thrushes is the 
Dipper, or Water Ousel, Fig. 123. This is found in En- 




Fig. 123.— The Water Ousel. 

gland, and also on the Continent of Europe, chiefly in 
hilly places where there are clear and rapid streams. It 
is a great diver, and has the habit of dipping and rising 
many times in succession, which gives it its name. There 
is an American Dipper, almost the counterpart of the 
European one ; it is found in the western part of North 
America. It is very fully described by Nuttal, who says 
that it flits about our streams with gravelly beds, occa- 
sionally diving for its prey, and that "in the very depths 
of winter and in early spring it contributes to cheer its 
Avild and dreary haunts by its simple, clear, and sweetly- 
warbled notes, somewhat resembling those of the young 
Song-thrush." 

251. There are many birds of this family that it would 



152 NATURAL HISTORY. 

be interesting to notice, but I will speak of only two or 
three more. The Catbird, so familiar to ns, is a beauti- 
ful singer, but when provoked or alarmed, utters a disa- 
greeable mewing sound, from which it gets its name. 
The Brown Thrush, or Thrasher, is a songster of great 
sweetness and compass. So also is the European Black- 
bird. This must not be confounded with our common 
American Blackbird, which belongs to the Crow family. 
252. The family of Fly-catchers is comparatively a 
small one in regard to the number of its species, but it 
is quite widely diffused. They derive their name from 
their skill in catching insects as they fly. For this pur- 
pose the bill is quite broad at the base, so that when the 
mandibles are separated, the mouth presents a wide 
opening. In this respect they approach the division of 
Fissirostres, § 236. Like them, also, they have bristles 
about the mouth at the sides ; and their legs are small 
and weak, as they are mostly on the wing. The most 
prominent of this family in this country is the Kingbird, 
one of the most bold and brave of all birds. Its dispo- 
sition to drive ofi* all other birds from the neighborhood 
of its nest, and keep sole possession of what it considers 
its own domains, has given this bird its name. It will 
attack even such large birds as Crows, Hawks, and 
Eagles, mounting above them, and darting down upon 
their backs, and by this continual annoyance will succeed 
in driving them off. It will sometimes pursue one of 
these birds a long distance, over a mile, and then return 
to the neighborhood of its nest with the proud air of a 
conqueror, uttering rapidly its shrill and triumphant 
notes. I have sometimes been amused with the boldness 
of this bird in flying in quick darts close to my head as 
I approached the tree where it had built its nest. Some 
of the birds manage, by agility or some cunning expe- 
dient, to escape the attacks of this tyrant. " I have 
seen," says Wilson, " the Red-headed Woodpecker, while 
clinging on the rail of a fence, amuse himself with the 



PERCHING BIRDS. 



153 



violence of the Kingbird, and play bo-peep with him 
around the rail, while the latter, highly irritated, made 
every attempt, as he swept from side to side, to strike 
him, but in vain." The Phebe-bird, which utters its 
pe-wee so continuously, is one of this family. There are 
eight species of Fly-catchers called Greenlets, which are 
familiar to this country. Their principal colors are vari- 
ous shades of green. One of them, from using bits of 
newspaper in making its nest, is sometimes called Poli- 
tician, 

253. The species of the family of Chatterers, or Wax- 
wings, are few. The Bohemian Waxwing, Fig. 124, is 
diffused over Europe, and ap- 
pears in England, so that its 
local name, accidentally given 
it, is not appropriate. With 
its silken tuft of feathers on its 
head, and the general silken 
appearance of its plumage, it 
is a beautiful bird, but its song 
is weak, as is that of all the 
Chatterers. There is a corre- 
sponding species pervading 
North and a part of South 
America, commonly called the 
Cedar-bird, or Cherry-bird. At 
the approach of winter the Ce- 
dar-birds leave the far north 
in companies of from twenty 
to a hundred, and go as far south as the confines of the 
equator. They reappear in the Northern and Eastern 
States in April, before the cherries and mulberries, their 
favorite fruits, ripen. Although they eat these fruits, they 
more than repay us by devouring quantities of canker- 
worms and other destructive insects. The Waxwings 
have their name from a peculiar ornament on their 
wings. Some of the feathers have appendages resem- 
G 2 




Fig. 124. — Bohemian Waxwing. 



154 



NATURAX HISTORY. 



bling red sealing-wax in color. The wing is represented 
in Fig. 125. 




Fig. 125. — Wing of Wax wing. 

254. The third division of the Perch ers is that of the 
Fissirostres. The characteristics of this tribe were men- 
tioned in § 236. These, as you have seen, appeared to 
some extent in some of the Dentirostres, especially the 
'family of Fly-catchers. The adaptation of the wide, 
gaping mouth, with its bristles at the sides, to the cap- 
ture of insects in flight, is obvious. Some of the larger 
species of this tribe, however, live on fish. There are 
six families — the Goatsuckers, the Swallows, the Todies, 
the Trogons, the Kingfishers, and the Bee-eaters. 

255. The Goatsuckers, of which you have an example 
in Fig. 118, are for the most part nocturnal, and they 
have the soft plumage and dull colors so characteristic 
of those nocturnal birds of prey, the Owls. They sally 
forth in the evening when the Fly-catchers and Swallows 
have retired- to rest, and, like the Bats, skim about in the 
air, mostly near the ground. But while the Bats capture 
such hard-cased insects as beetles, the Goatsuckers take 
into their gaping mouths the soft-bodied moths. When 
these are once in the mouth they can not escape, for the 
bristles fence them in, and the thick saliva which is there 
envelops them. The foot of this bird is curiously con- 
structed. The hind toe, as in the Owls, can be brought 



PERCHING BIRDS. 



155 



forward, and the claw of the longest anterior toe has a 
long, comb-like projection, as seen in Fig. 126. The use 




Fig. 126. — Foot of European G-oatsucker. 

of this is not ascertained. There is but one species of 
this family known in Great Britain, and this appears in 
all parts of Europe. There are several species in this 
country, one of them being the Whippoorwill and anoth- 
er the Night-hawk. They all have the mottled colors and 
large dark eyes which are so characteristic of night birds. 
256. The Swallows are characterized by great power 
of wing, wide mouths, and short legs. The plumage of 
their bodies is firm and close, their wing feathers are 
long, stiff, and pointed, and their tails are long and fork- 
ed, all which are adapted to great speed. The Swift, 
Fig. 127, called "Jack Screamer,'' is the largest of Brit- 
ish Swallows. It spends most of the day on the wing, 




Fig. 127.— The Swift. 



15(3 NATURAL HISTORY. 

wheeling with wonderful velocity, occasionally soaring 
very high, and uttering its shrill screams. It captures 
great quantities of insects to give to its young, retaining 
them in a kind of pouch under the tongue. Our Chim- 
ney Swallow is one of the Swifts. It is a social bird, ap- 
pearing in flocks, and making its nest in tall hollow 
trees or in unused chimneys. It is amusing to see them 
go into a chimney. The flock wheels round and round, 
and as they come down near the chimney those that are 
lowest drop in at each turn till the whole have descend- 
ed. The Bank Swallow, or Sand Martin, which we see 
so often making holes in sand-banks with its awl-shaped 
bill, has its counterpart in Europe. The Martins, which 
so familiarly inhabit the boxes set up for them by man, 
are Swallows. Appearing in the extreme south of the 
United States the first part of February, they arrive in 
New England the latter part of April, and in May they 
are seen as far north as Hudson's Bay. They begin to 
emigrate from thence southward in August.* 

257. The Todies are birds of gaudy plumage and rapid 
flight, restricted almost entirely to tropical regions. 

* There is one species of Swallow which furnishes a singular arti- 
cle of diet, highly prized by the Chinese. This article is the nest of 
the bird. The chief material of which the nest is composed has been 
a subject of much dispute, some supposing it to be a kind of sea-weed, 
and others a substance derived from the spawn of fishes. *' It is now 
ascertained," says Carpenter, 'Hhat this substance is secreted by enor- 
mously developed salivary glands ; a few fragments of grass, hair, and 
other substances are generally mixed with it. The purest nests con- 
sist almost entirely of gelatinous matter, which, dissolving readily in 
water, is employed in making rich soups and gravies. The collecting 
of these nests is a proceeding of great danger; but a large number of 
persons are employed in it, as may be judged from the quantity sent 
to China. About 27,000 lbs. are annually transmitted from Java, 
and these are of the best quality. A still greater quantity is obtained 
from the Suluk Archipelago, and much, also, from Ceylon and New 
Guinea. It is calculated that about 30,000 tons of Chinese shipping 
are engaged in the traffic, and that the value of their freights is above 
£280.000." 



PERCHING BIEDS. 157 

258. The Trogons have great brilliancy of plumage, 
the usual tint being a golden green, contrasted boldly 
with scarlet, black, and brown. They are found in the 
tropical parts of Asia and America. The Resplendent 
Trogon of Mexico, Fig. 128, is the most gorgeous of all 




Fig. 128. — Resplendent Trogon. 

of them, its whole upper surface being of the richest 
metallic golden green, the breast and under parts of a 
bright crimson, and the tail being covered by long, soft 
plumes of various colors. These plumes were used by 
the ancient Mexican nobles as ornaments for their head- 
dresses. 

259. The Kingfishers feed upon fish, which they take by 
diving. There is but one species in this country. There 
is a species in Europe of a similar character, but with 
brighter hues. It is described as being exceedingly beau- 
tiful, as, with the metallic glitter of its plumage, it glides 
along the bank of a river, or darts into the water. Of 



158 



NATUBAL HISTORY. 



the Bee-eaters there are none in this country. There is 
a considerable number of species in Africa, Asia, and 
Australia. 

260. The Tenuirostres have long slender bills, intend- 
ed either for collecting the honey in the nectaries of flow- 
ers, or for the capture of small insects, of which, when- 
ever we examine flowers, we see so many in and around 
them. Their Avings are commonly long, but the feet are 
slender, showing that they are to be mostly on the wing. 
They are, for the most part, small and of delicate form, 
and have great variety and brilliancy of plumage. They 
are almost entirely confined to the torrid zone. There 
are five families : the Humming-birds, Sunbirds, Honey- 
suckers, Hoopoes, and Creepers. 

261. The Humming-birds, of which there are three 
hundred species, are exclusively confined to America. 
All but two or three are tropical birds. They are the 
smallest and most brilliantly colored of the feathered race. 
Their variety of shape may be judged of by the few spe- 




Fig, 129.— Humming-birds. 



PERCHING BIRDS. 



159 



cies represented in Fig. 129 (p. 158). The muscles of their 
wings are larger, in proportion to the size of the body, 
than those of any other bird. Hence their extraordinary 
power of flight, enabhng them to dart with the velocity 
of an arrow, or to remain suspended in the air over a flow- 
er while they extract the honey or take the insects which 
are there. The humming sound, from which their name 
comes, is produced by the exceedingly rapid movement 
of the wings. The tongue is a curious instrument, being 
split into two tubular filaments, which can be suddenly 

darted out to a con- 
siderable distance. 
Our common North- 
ern Humming - bird, 
Fig. 130, comes north 
as late as May. -The 
male bird has a 
changeable ruby-col- 
ored throat. There 
is a very brilliant spe- 
cies found as far north 
on the western coast 
of America as 'Noot- 

Fig.l30.-Northem Humming-bird. ^^ Sound, the male 

having a crimson and copper colored throat. Nuttal 
speaks of it as seeming like " a breathing gem or magic 
carbuncle of glowing fire" as it flies about in search of 
its food. 

262. While the Humming-birds are peculiar to the 
New World, the Sunbirds are peculiar to the Old, al- 
most rivaling the former in brilliancy of plumage, and re- 
sembling them in their general habits. They have sim- 
ilar tongues ; but in gathering their food they alight, 
and never hover over a flower as the Humming-birds do. 
They differ from the Humming-birds in one respect very 
decidedly — they are generally agreeable songsters, while 
the voice of the Humming-birds is nothing but a shrill 




160 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



ciy. These birds range over Africa, Asia, and the Pa- 
cific Ocean. In the Hawaian Islands their feathers are 
highly esteemed as ornaments of head-dresses, and com- 
mand a high price. 

263. The Honey suckers are an aberrant family pecul- 
iar to Australia and 
the neighboring isl- 
ands. The Hoopoes 
are a still more aber- 
rant family. Th e Eu- 
ropean Hoopoe, Fig. 
131, with its crest, 
which it can raise or 
depress at pleasure, 
is a very beautiful 
bird. It is quite 
abundant in France. 
The Creepers are still 
another aberrant 
family, some species 
of which verge to- 
ward the Perchers, 
Fig. idL-European Hoopoe. especially the War- 

bler family, and others toward the next order to be con- 
sidered, the Scansores. The common Creeper of Europe, 




-y^^^ 




Fig. 132. — Creeper. 



CLIMBING BIRDS. 161 

Fig. 132 (p. 160), is supposed to be of the same species 
with the common Creeper of this country. This pretty- 
little bird may be seen running spirally up the trunks of 
trees, probing the bark here and there with its bill in 
search of insects that harbor in the crevices. To this 
family belong the N^uthatches and the Wrens, of both 
which there are several species in this country. 

Questions. — What is said of the Thrush family? What of the 
Mocking-bird ? What of the American Robin ? What of the Water 
Ousel? What other birds of this family are noticed? AVhat is said 
of the family of Fly-catchers ? What of the Kingbird ? What other 
birds of this family are mentioned ? What is said of the family of 
Waxwings ? What is the third division of the Perchers ? What 
are the chief characteristics of the birds of this division ? What is 
said of the Goatsuckers ? What of their feet ? What species are 
mentioned as belonging to this country ? What is said of the Swal- 
lows? What of the Swift ? Of the Chimney Swallow ? Of the Bank 
Swallow? What is said of the Todies? What of the Trogons? 
What are the characteristics of the Tenuirostres ? What families are 
in this group ? What is said of the Humming-birds ? What of their 
wings ? Of their tongues ? Of their humming ? What is said of a 
species found on the western coast of America ? What is said of the 
Sunbirds ? What of the Honeysuckers ? What of the Creepers ? 



CHAPTER XVl. 

CLIMBING, SCEATCHING, AJSTD RUNI^ING BIEDS. 

264. We come now to the third order of Land Birds, 
the Scansores, or CHmbers. They have four toes, two 
directed forward and two backward. Spending most of 
their time in climbing, the muscles of their lower extrem- 
ities are made strong for this purpose ; and, on the other 
hand, as they have little need of flying, the muscles of 
their wings are small. The order includes four families : 
the Parrots, Toucans,Woodpeckers, and Cuckoos. There 
are such marked differences between these families, that 
it would seem that some of them ought to be reckoned 



162 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



as separate orders ; but they all agree in their adaptation 
to climbing, and therefore they are classed together in 
the order Scansores. 

265. The Parrots are characterized by their short, hard, 
arched beaks, and their thick fleshy tongues. They are 
natives of the tropical and Avarmer temperate regions in 
both hemispheres. They are remarkable for their edu- 
cability and their power of imitation in the use of the 
voice. They have greater prehensile power than any 
other birds, using the beak as well as the feet in grasp- 
ing. On account of this power, their intelligence, and 
their arboreal habits, Ave may consider the Parrot tribe 
as holding a situation among birds like that which the 
Monkey tribe holds among the Mammalia. 

266. The Toucans, of which one species is represented 
in Fig. 133, are all natives of South America. Their enor- 
mous bills are made light in the same way as those of the 
Horn-bills (§ 244), by being of a honeycomb structure. 




l=J/ 



Fig. 133 Toucan. 



CLIMBING BIRDS. 



163 



The Toucan seems to be omnivorous, but is very fond of 
mice and small birds, which it kills by a powerful squeeze 
of its bill. When sleeping, it takes special care of its 
bill, packing it away among its feathers, so that the bird 
presents the appearance of a great feathery ball. 

267. The Woodpeckers, so appropriately named, are 
widely diffused, being found in all quarters of the globe 
except Australia. There are eight species in this coun- 
try. They live on insects and grubs, which they bore for 
in the bark and wood of trees. In Fig. 134 you have the 
attitude of the Woodpecker as he bores. The bill is 




Fig. 134.— Woodpecker. 

long, sharp, and stout ; and with his powerful feet he 
holds on firmly, while he drives in his bill with all the 
force which his body can give to it. The sound produced 
by this operation is very much like that of a watchman's 
rattle. When an insect or grub is reached by this bor- 
ing, it is drawn out by the tongue, which is specially 
adapted to do this. It is very long, and its sharp point 
is barbed with several filaments, and has upon it a gum- 



164 NATURAL HISTORY. 

my secretion. If the insect be of any size it is impaled, 
and if very small, this glutinous substance makes it ad- 
here to the tongue.* 

268. The Cuckoo family is quite an extensive one, con- 
sisting, for the most part, of inhabitants of the warmer 
regions. The species which in spring migrates to Great 
Britain, and is so common there, has the curious habit 
of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds of various 
kinds, making them perform for her the incubation need- 
ed to hatch them. The Cuckoo of this country, though 
very similar in most respects, has no such habit. The 
young European Cuckoos seem to catch the spirit of the 
parent, for they contrive to cast out of the nest the young 
of the bird by which they have been hatched. But, as 
they do this slyly, the foster-mother, knowing nothing of 
it, does not cease her tender care of the intruders. 

269. The fourth order of birds is that of the Rasores, 
or Scratchers. The food of these birds consists chiefly 
of grains and seeds, and they accordingly pass most of 
their time on the ground. They differ in this respect 
from the birds that we have already noticed, which live 
mostly on the Aving or on trees. Accordingly, the Ra- 
sores have little power of flight, and the muscles of the 
wings are much smaller in proportion to the size of the 
body than those of the Perchers and other birds of flight. 
Their legs are sufliciently long to enable them to walk 
well, and their feet are armed with short stout nails fitted 
for scratching in search of food. As their food is hard, 
and they have no teeth for masticating it, there is a crop 
for macerating it, and a gizzard for reducing it to pulp. 

* It is stated by Mr. Wood that these bkds do not injure trees — 
that the insects which they seek for are in decayed branches and 
stumps, and, guided by instinct, the Woodpecker bores only in these. 
This, however, is not so, and I have this summer seen in my garden 
a thrifty pear-tree most curiously marked by the borings of this bird. 
The holes were up the trunk and out upon some of the branches in 
horizontal rows, from five to eight in each row. 



SCKATCHING BIRDS. 165 

This digestive apparatus, described in Chapter XII., is 
seen very completely developed in the birds of this order. 

270. Most of the Scratchers do not associate in pairs. 
The male birds have nothing to do with taking care of 
the young, which are hatched with their eyes open, and 
are generally able to run about at once in search of food, 
instead of being dependent for some time on the parent 
for their supply. They can, for the most part, be domes- 
ticated, and they are the most useful to man of all the 
birds, affording him quite a large portion of his food. 
The plumage of the male birds is usually gay, and they 
often have crests or some other ornaments on the head. 
The females commonly differ from the males in a marked 
manner in these respects. 

271. There is a striking analogy between these birds 
and the Ruminant Quadrupeds in several points. In 
both the food is vegetable, and in both there is a special 
provision for breaking it up and moistening it, so that 
the gastric juice may readily act upon it. The crop in 
the fowl answers to the paunch in the Ruminant, and the 
crushing by the gizzard to the grinding in rumination, 
each following the maceration. Then, too, these birds 
and the Ruminants are both, for the most part, easily do- 
mesticated, and domestication produces in both great va- 
riety in breeds. There are seven families : 1. The Pigeon 
family. 2. The Curassows. 3. The Pheasants. 4. The 
Grouse. 5. The Sheath-bills. 6. The Tinamous family. 
7. The Greatfoots. 

272. The family of Pigeons includes both those birds 
called by this name and those Avhich are called Doves. 
These birds differ from those of the other families of this 
order in pairing ; in living on trees, and, much of the time, 
on the wing, for which they are adapted by the large 
size of the wing-muscles ; and in having the hinder toe on 
a level with the others, as in the Perchers, instead of be- 
ing above them, as we see it in the common fowl and in 
all the other families. On these accounts some have been 



166 



NATURAL HISTORY, 




disposed to makd" the Pigeon tribe an order by them- 
selves. Th^ Pigeons are very remarkable for their mode 
of feeding their young. The crop is double, forming two 

pouches, one on either side 
of the gullet, as represent- 
ed at a and h in Fig. 135. 
Now, while the bird is in- 
cubating, a curious change 
takes place in the crop, and 
for a special purpose. Ordi- 
narily it is thin and smooth, 
as seen at a ; but when the 
bird is about to have young 
to care for, the crop be- 
comes thick and full of lit- 
tle lumps, as represented at 
J. These lumps are glands, 
that have now become en- 
larged, in order to perform 
their duty of pouring a 
milky fluid into the crop. The object of this is to soften 
the food, so that, when this is done, the bird may throw 
it up out of the crop and give it to its young. It is sin- 
gular that the same change takes place in the male bird ; 
and both parents, therefore, engage in feeding their off- 
spring. The most conspicuous varieties of the domestic 
Pigeons are seen in Fig. 136 (p. 167). That large Pig- 
eon, the Pouter, is able to inflate its crop with air so as 
almost to hide its head behind it, and it seems to be quite 
vain of this accomplishment. 

273. This family are found in almost every part of the 
globe, and in some they multiply to an enormous extent. 
The most remarkable in this respect is the Passenger 
Pigeon of this country. " The associated numbers of 
wild Pigeons," says Nuttal, " are without any other par- 
allel in the feathered race ; they can, indeed, alone be 
compared to the shoals of herrings, which, descending 



Fig. 135. — Pigeon's Craw. 



SCRATCHING BIRDS. 167 




Fig. 136.— Domestic Pigeons. 

from the arctic regions, discolor and fill the ocean to the 
extent of mighty kingdoms. To talk of hundreds of mil- 
lions of individuals of the same species habitually associ- 
ated in feeding, roosting, and breeding, without any re- 
gard to climate or season as an operating cause in these 
gregarious movements, would at first appear to be whol- 
ly incredible, if not borne out by most abundant testi- 
mony. The approach of the mighty feathered army with 
a loud rushing roar, and a stirring breeze, attended by a 
sudden darkness, might be mistaken for a fearful tornado. 
For several hours together the vast host, extending some 
miles in breadth, still continues to pass in flocks without 
diminution. At the approach of the Hawk their sublime 
and beautiful aerial evolutions are disturbed, like the ruf- 
fling squall extending over the placid ocean." Audubon 
calculated, estimating one of these flocks to be a mile in 
width, and allowing two pigeons to each square yard, 
that it numbered eleven hundred and fifteen millions, and 
that the quantity of food necessary for its supply must 



168 NATURAL HISTORY. 

be 8,712,000 bushels per day. Their breeding-places are 
large forests, sometimes fifty miles long by fom- or five 
wide, in which every tree has from fifty to a hundred 
nests. 

274. The flight of the Pigeon is very rapid. Pigeons 
have been killed in New York State with Carolina rice 
in their crops. Judging by the short time required in 
them for the process of digestion, it is calculated that 
these birds must have flown between three and four hund- 
red miles in six hours, which is over a mile in a minute. 
The Carrier Pigeon has been known to fly much faster 
than this — nearly one hundred and fifty miles in an hour. 
Before the invention of the Electric Telegraph this bird 
was extensively employed in Europe for carrying mes- 
sages. Some were trained to carry both from and to 
their residence. The letter was fastened under the wing 
or to its feet. The feet were bathed in vinegar to keep 
them cool, lest the bird should stop on the way to bathe. 
On starting, it rose high in the air, made two or three 
circular sweeps, and then darted off* like an arrow for its 
place of destination. 

275. The other six families are styled commonly the 
true Gallinaceous birds, from gallus^ cock, and gallina^ 
hen. The Curassows are peculiar to the tropical part of 
South America. Some species are as large as Turkeys, 
and are much prized as food. They can be easily domes- 
ticated. 

276. In the Pheasant family the hind toe is placed so 
high that only the tip touches the ground, and there are 
also commonly one or more spurs. This family includes 
the common Fowls, Turkeys, Pheasants, Peacocks, Par- 
tridges, etc. The common Fowl is more extensively dif- 
fused than any others, and there are many varieties pro- 
duced by domestication. Its native country is India, in 
whose jungles it is found in great numbers living on 
grain and seeds. The Turkeys are natives of North and 
Central Amei'ica. The vmttles^ which are larger in these 



SCRATCHING BIRDS. 



169 



than in any other birds of this family, are loose folds of 
skin well supplied with blood-vessels. These become 
redder and fuller when the Turkey is excited, just as the 
cheeks of man are reddened in blushing. The true Pheas- 
ants are allied to the Fowls. They are found wild in va- 
rious parts of Asia. The most splendid species is the 
Argus Pheasant, Fig. 137, a native of Sumatra, Malacca, 

and the southeast 







part of Asia. The 
beautiful eye -spots 
on its plumage sug- 
gested the name of 
Argus, the shep- 
herd, who, with his 
hundred eyes, was 
set by Juno to 
watch lo. 

277. The Grouse 
family is diffused 
over the northern 
parts of America, 
\ Europe, and Asia. 
They differ from the 
Pheasants in having 
no naked crests or 
Avattles, and in the 
absence of brilliant 
colors in the plu- 
mage. They vary 
'^ much in size, the 
Partridges and 
Quails being birds 
of moderate size, while the Cock of the Wood in Europe, 
and the Cock of the Plains in this country, are nearly as 
large as the Turkey. The California Quail is a beautiful 
bird, having a delicate crest of a dark color, which it can 
erect or depress at pleasure. The Ptarmigans are an in- 
H 



Fig. 137. — Argus Pheasant. 



170 NATURAL HISTORY. 

teresting portion of the Grouse family. They live in the 
far north in America and Europe. Their legs, and even 
the feet, are covered with hair-like feathers. Their plu- 
mage, like the fur of the Ermine and some other quadru- 
peds, changes, as winter comes on, from a rich, almost 
tortoise-shell color, to a pure white. The trade in Ptar- 
migans in the north of Europe is very extensive. The 
captured birds are kept in a frozen state for the dealers 
who come for them. 

278. The Sheath-bills are a comparatively small family, 
found chiefly in South America. Their nostrils are sur- 
rounded by a kind of sheath, and their plumage is snowy 
Avhite. The Tinamous family, also a small one, is found 
in the same country, where they seem to occupy the 
same place that the Partridges and Quails do in other 
countries. The family of Greatfoots is peculiar to Aus-- 
tralia and the adjacent islands. One of them is called 
the Brush Turkey, from its resemblance in general form 
to the common Turkey. It lives in the thick brushwood 
of Australia. This and another bird, the Mound^making 
Megapode (Greatfoot), are famous for making the mounds 
spoken of in § 205. This latter bird deposits its eggs 
some five or six feet deep in its mound, and then covers 
them up. Its mounds are very large. One of them was 
found to be fifteen feet high and sixty feet in circumfer- 
ence. They were at first supposed to be the tombs of 
the aborigines. 

279. We come now to the order Cursores, or Runners 
— the Ostriches and their allies. We commonly think 
of birds as being, of course, capable of flight, but here we 
have a class of birds which are wholly terrestrial. Near- 
ly all of them have wings, but all that their wings can do 
is to assist them in running. Their wings being small, 
the muscles which move them are small also. Accord- 
ingly, the breast-bone is entirely destitute of the project- 
ing keel (§ 199) which it has in other birds, this being 
needed onlv for the attachment of larQ:e muscles. In the 



RUNNING BIEDS. l^l 

Cursores this bone is a smooth round shield on its breast. 
While the muscles of the wings are small, those of the 
legs are very stout — their chief power is there. The plu- 
mage differs from those of birds of flight, the laminae of 
the feathers not being united together by barbs (§ 197). 
Such a union is needed for the pressure on the air re- 
quired in flying, and therefore is omitted when there is 
no flying to be done. 

280. This grou]3 of birds is, then, an aberrant one, and, 
as is usually the case in groups of this character, there 
are but few species. One of the most prominent is the 
African Ostrich. This is the tallest of all birds, reach- 
ing sometimes even to eight feet. It is found in the 
sandy deserts of Africa and Arabia. It is probably the 
swiftest of all running animals. It can be domesticated, 
and will easily carry two men on its back. Its nest is 
merely a hollow made in the sand, and the hatching of 
the eggs is not left to the heat of the sun, but both the 
male and female bird engage in the incubation. The 
Bushmen make of these shells water-flasks, cups, and dish- 
es. The food of the Ostrich consists of the tops of shrub- 
by plants, seeds, and grain. It swallows, also, stones, 
sticks, bits of metal, leather, etc., probably guided by in- 
stinct, as these will help the grinding of the food, as the 
gravel does which the common Fowl swallows. There 
is an American Ostrich, a smaller bird, found in the south- 
ern part of South America. 

281. The Emu, Fig. 138 (page 172), a native of Austra- 
lia, is nearly as large as the Ostrich, but is lower on the 
legs, has a shorter neck, and is more thickset in body. 
The wings are mere rudiments, and are concealed be- 
neath the feathers of the body. The feathers strongly 
resemble branching hairs, the laminae being at a distance 
from each other. The Cassowary, a native of Java and 
the neighboring islands, is much smaller than the Os- 
trich. Of all the Cursores, the Apteryx of New Zealand 
is the one most completely destitute of wings. It has a 



172 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




^ r'^:,>f 



Fig. 138.— Emu. 

very long bill, on which it sometimes rests as an old man 
does upon his cane placed before him. Unlike the other 
Cm^sores, it lives on insects and worms. Its habits are 
noctm^nal, and the natives hunt it by torchlight for the 
sake of its skin, which is highly valued as a material for 
the dresses of their chiefs. It is a curious fact that in 
the volcanic sands of New Zealand there have been found 
the bones of several large birds of this order now extinct. 
One of them is supposed to have been fourteen feet in 
height. 

Questions. — What are the peculiarities of the Scansores ? What 
are their families ? What is said of their differences ? What is said 
of the Parrots ? What of the Toucans ? What of the Woodpeckers ? 
Of the Cuckoos ? What are the characteristics of the Easores ? 
What is said of the analogies between them and the Ruminant Quad- 
rupeds ? What are the families of the Easores ? What are the char- 
acteristics of the Pigeon family ? What is said of their digestive ap- 
paratus ? What is said of the Pouter Pigeon ? What of the flocks 



THE WADING AND SWIMMING BIEDS. 173 

of wild Pigeons ? What of the power of flight in Pigeons ? What 
of the Carrier Pigeon ? What are the Gallinaceous birds ? What is 
said of the Curassows? What does the Pheasant family include? 
What is said of the common Fowl ? What of the Argus Pheasant ? 
How do the Grouse family differ from the Pheasants ? What is said 
of their size ? What is said of the California Quail ? What of the 
Ptarmigans ? What are the peculiarities of the Sheath-bills ? What 
is said of the Tinamous family ? What of the Greatfoots ? What is 
said of the Cursores ? What of the African Ostrich ? What of the 
Emu ? What of the Apteryx ? 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE WADING AND SWIMMING BIRDS. 

282. We have now arrived at the Water Bkds, the 
Grallatores and the ISTatatores. The Grallatores are com- 
monly called Waders ; but, as Carpenter says, they would 
be more appropriately named Stilt-walkers, the real mean- 
ing of the word Grallatores, for they are all remarkable 
for the length of their legs, while many of them can 
scarcely be said to be aquatic in their habits. Those 
which are most decidedly aquatic have their feet partial- 
ly webbed. This is probably to enable them to swim in 
case that they should get beyond their depth. Most of 
the birds of this order find their food in the water, which 
consists of fish, mollusks, aquatic worms and insects. 
Their legs are, accordingly, both long and naked, so that 
they may wade with facility, and their necks and bills are 
long, that they may reach their food. They are generally 
slender birds, and their wings are fitted for rapid flight. 
Their tails are short, and they therefore stretch out their 
long legs behind to act as a rudder, in place of the tails 
of other flying birds (§210). They are distributed wide- 
ly over the earth, and many of them make periodical mi- 
grations north and south. There are six families : Bus- 
tards, Plovers, Cranes, Herons, Snipes, and Rails. 

283. The Bustards are natives of the Eastern Conti- 



174 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



nent and Australia. As these birds have the stout legs 
of an Ostrich, and are fast runners, preferring running to 
flying, some naturalists place them among the Cursores ; 
but as they have wings of considerable size, and can fly 
readily and far, they obviously do not belong in that or- 
der. They have some alHance to the Pheasants (§ 276), 
for they live in part on grain, deposit their eggs in the 
ground without any proper nest, and do not live in pairs. 
The Great Bustard, Fig. 139, is the largest of all the Eu- 
ropean birds. The 
full-grown male is 
four feet long, and 
weighs from thirty 
to forty pounds. 
Though once com- 
mon in England, it 
is now rarely seen 
there ; but it is still 
common in Spain, 
Greece, in some parts 
of Russia, and in the 
wilds of Tartary. 

284. The Plover 
family are also good 
runners. They be- 
long mostly to the 
Fig. 139.-Great Bustard. temperate climatcs 

of the Old World. They are found chiefly in sandy, un- 
sheltered shores and moors. Their wings are large, and 
in their flight they wheel round in circles, much like the 
Swifts and the Pigeons. The Oyster-catcher, extensively 
distributed in the Old World, is also one of the Plovers 
of this country. It lives on Oysters and other bivalves, 
having a wedge-shaped bill peculiarly fitted to open them. 
The Lapwing, Fig. 140 (p. 1 75), one of the European Plov- 
ers, is a beautiful bird. It has a crest of long black 
feathers extending backward, and this, with the black 




THE WADING AND SWIMMING BIRDS. 



175 



and white colors of 
the plumage of its 
body, makes it a 
very conspicuous 
bird in its flight. 

285. The general 
shape of the Crane 
^|Y family you see ex- 
emplified in the 
common Crane, 

140.— Lapwing. Fig. 141, which is 

found over a large part of Europe, Asia, and Africa. In 
the summer it is found in the north of Europe and Asia, 





Fig. 141. — Crane. 



but in winter it migrates to India, to Egypt, and other 
parts of Africa. It flies to a great height, and even when 
almost out of sight its hoarse cry is audible. It feeds on 
frogs, snails, worms, and grain. It is about three or four 
feet in length. There is a singular species of Crane in 



176 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



South America, called, from its loud harsh voice, the 
Trumpeter. It is about the size of a Fowl, and is read- 
ily domesticated. It runs rapidly, but seldom takes the 
wing. There are two large membranous bags connect- 
ed with the windpipe at its lower part, which are sup- 
posed to give force to the voice, being used as the full 
bag of air is in the bagpipe. 

286. The Heron family may be considered as the typ- 
ical family of this order, the birds included in it being 
pre-eminently formed for wading. They are found on 
the margins of rivers, lakes, and marshes, and live on 
fishes, reptiles, and sometimes small Mammalia. They 
have, usually, long, stout, and sharp-pointed beaks, in or- 
der to capture the fish 
for which they watch 
so patiently in the atti- 
tude represented in Fig. 
142. Contrary to the 
habits of most of the 
birds of this order, the 
Heron builds its nest 
in a high tree, feeding 
its young with fish for 
five or six weeks. The 
common Heron, Figure 
142, is spread over a 
great part of the Old 
World. The plumes of 
this bird were former- 
ly worn as ornaments 
only by the noble. 
There is an allied species in America. The Spoon-bills, 
notwithstanding the form of the beak, are generally rank- 
ed in the Heron family. They live by the edges of marsh- 
es, or near the sea-shore, where there are thick bushes, 
and their food consists of fishes, mollusks, and aquatic 
insects. The White Spoon-bill of the Old World, Fig. 




Fig. 142.— Heron. 



THE WADING AND SWIMMING BIRDS. 



177 




Fig. 143.— White Spoon-biU. 



143, is nearly three feet 
long. There is an al- 
lied species in South 
America called the 
Boat-bill. 

287. The Storks are 
among the largest birds 
of this order, but they 
are less aquatic than the 
other families. They 
are shaped much like 
the Cranes, but have 
not the pendent plumes 
in the tail. They are 
abundant in E u r o p e, 
Asia, and Africa. They 
winter in the latter 
country. They build 
their nests in towers, chimneys, and steeples, or in the 
broadly-spreading branches of a cedar or j^ine. In Hol- 
land, a kind of false chimney is built by the inhabitants 
for these birds to make their nests in. They live on rats, 
mice, frogs, and sometimes carrion or offal, and for this 
reason they are held in esteem, especially in the Eastern 
countries. The Adjutant of India, which is so useful in 
destroying vermin and offal, is one of the Stork family. 
So is also the sacred Ibis of Egypt, which figures so often 
in their hieroglyphics. 

288. The distribution of the Snipe family is very gen- 
eral. Their food consists of insects, worms, slugs, aquat- 
ic mollusks, etc., which they obtain by thrusting their 
long and slender bills into mud or moist earth. Their 
bills are accordingly provided with nerves, so that they 
may know at once whenever they strike upon their prey. 
The flesh of these birds is held in high esteem. The 
Woodcock of this country has its counterpart in Europe. 
The Curlews, of which you have an example in Fig. 144, 
H2 



178 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



are characterized by 
their curved beaks. 
Birds of this genus 
of the Snipe family 
are found in the 
northern parts of 
both continents. 
The largest of the 
American Curlews, 
appropriately called 
the Siclde-bill,is over 
two feet in length, 
and has a bill from 
seven to nine inches 
long. 

289. In the Avo- 
cet, Fig. 145, the bill 
turns vjnoardm its curve. This bird gathers its food by 
scooping it up from the mud. In searching for it, it 




Fig. 144. — Curlew. 




Fig. 145.— Avocet. 

moves its bill from one side to the other like the motions 
of a mower, and leaves its traces in the mud. The Amer- 
ican Avocet, Wilson says, is called by the inhabitants of 
Cape May, the Lawyer, from its flippant clamor. It is 



THE WADING AND SWIMMING BIRDS. 



179 



sometimes called Blue-stocking, from the color of its legs. 
The Stilt Plovers, remarkable for the great length of 
their legs, are included among the Avocets. 

290. The Rail family are characterized by their long 
toes, enabling them to walk easily over soft mud or even 
the leaves of water-plants. Some of the tribe have for 
this purpose membranous margins along the sides of the 

toes, so that the foot 
may have a consider- 
able flat surface. The 
Jacanas, of which a 
specimen is given in 
Fig. 146, can walk on 
the broad leaves of 
water-plants, and, as 
these leaves sink a lit- 
tle as the foot press- 
es on them, the bird 
has the appearance 
of walking on the wa- 
ter. These birds are 
found in Asia, Africa, 
and America. The 
specimen represent- 
ed in the figure is the 
species found in Brazil and Guiana. 

291. Birds of the order Natatores have a peculiar pro- 
vision for swimming. They are web-footed ; that is, the 
toes are connected together by a membrane or web, as 
seen in Fig. 147 (p. 180), so that the feet can be used as 
oars or paddles. In the act of swimming, the toes are 
brought near togetlier when the foot is carried forward, 
and they are spread out when it is carried backward. 
The body of the bird is boat - shaped, so as to move 
through the water easily. In those which are the most 
aquatic in their habits, the feet are placed far back, so 
that they may propel the body efiectively ; and this gives 




Fig. 14(5. — Jacana. 



180 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

the peculiar waddling gait which is so familiar to us in 
the Duck. Their plumage is dense, and it is oiled by a 




Fig. 147.— Foot of Gannet. 

secretion from glands, which keeps it from being pene- 
trated by the water. Their necks are long, to enable 
them to reach their food. They are the only birds, Cu- 
vier remarks, in which the neck is longer than the legs. 
There are five families : Ducks, Divers, Auks, Gulls, and 
Pelicans. 

292. The Duck family have broad bills with horny 
laminsB at the edges, which act as a filter, allowing the 
water to escape, but retaining substances which are in it. 
While this is going on, the tongue, which is soft and well 
endowed with nerves, is informing the animal what is 
and what is not worthy of being retained, or, in other 
words, selecting its food. There are nerves in the bill, 
also, which assist in this selection. The food is various, 
consisting of insects, worms, moUusks, grains, etc. These 
birds are distributed widely over the globe, and are usu- 
ally migratory. The flights of the Wild Geese in their 
military order are familiar to us. From the Wild Geese 
and Ducks come the domesticated ones. As the Goose 
lives more on land than the Duck, its legs are not set so 
far back, and it walks better. It seems to partake of the 
characteristics of both the Swimmers and the Waders. 
As it lives so much on land, its food is principally grains 
and grass. 

293. The true Ducks maybe divided into two classes, 
those which frequent inland shallow waters, and those 



THE WADIIS^G AND SWIMMING BIEDS. 



181 



which are found in deeper v/aters and in the sea. The 
latter are well provided for in their swimming apparatus, 
and are good divers also. The Eider Duck, an inhabit- 
ant of the northern regions of both hemispheres, furnish- 
es the famous eider-down. The beautiful and graceful 
Swans belong to the Duck family. They are inhabitants 
of the east of Europe and Asia. Among the singular an- 
imals of that country so fruitful in strange things, Aus- 
tralia, there is a Swan, the whole of whose plumage is a 

jetty black. The 
Flamingo, Figure 
148, although it has 
the long legs of a 
Crane, and so is a 
good wader ,is com- 
monly reckoned in 
the Duck family, 
because its feet are 
well webbed, and 
its mandibles are 
laminated as in the 
case of the true 
Ducks. It is found 
in Africa, Asia, and 
the warmer parts 
of Europe. The 
color of the plu- 
mage is a deep 
brilliant scarlet, ex- 
cept the quill-feath- 
e r s, which are 
black. When a 
flock of these birds 
stand in a line, as 
they often do, they look like a file of small soldiers. The 
nest ofthe Flamingo is a conical heap made of mud, with 
a hollow place in the top. When it sits on the nest its 
lono^ leo^s hano^ over the sides. 




Fig. 148. — Flamingo. 



182 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



294. The family of Divers have short Avings, and their 
legs are so far back on the body that they always are 
erect when they stand. They live on fish, which they 
catch by diving. They are inhabitants of the northern 
regions. The Grebes, a branch of this family, are not 
web -footed, but have their toes separate and broadly 
fringed along their edges. Each toe is therefore a pad- 
dle. It is supposed that this arrangement enables the 
bird to swim easily where there is much vegetation in 
the water. The quickness with which the Grebes dive 
is wonderful. They have been seen to dive quickly enough 
to avoid the shot of a gun on hearing the report, and 
come up at the distance of two hundred yards. They 

get along very poorly 
on land, for they are 
obliged to lie their 
whole length and 
then shufile along like 
seals. The Crested 
Grebe, Figure 149, is 
found in Scotland and 
England. 

295. The Auks 
have, like the Divers, 
very short wings, and 
their feet are set far 
back. They use their 
wings in swimming 
as the whales do their 
flippers and as fishes 
do their fins, so that 
they may be said to fly in the water. They use their 
w^ebbed feet, also, at the same time. The Great Auk, a 
bird three feet in length, is an inhabitant of the arctic 
regions. So, also, is the Puflin, another of this family. 
The Auks and Puffins of the northern regions are rep- 
resented by the Penguins in the southern hemisphere. 




Fig. 149.— Crested Grebe. 



THE WADING AND SWIMMING BIEDS. 



183 




The Cape Penguin, Fig. 150, is very abundant at the Cape 
of Good Hope and the Falkland Islands. In the water 

its wings are used as 
fins, but on the land 
as front legs. When 
it crawls, as we may 
say, on all -fours, it 
moves so quickly that 
it might readily be 
taken for a quadru- 
ped. The rookeries 
of the Penguins, ar- 
ranged with great 
regularity, though oc- 
cupied by vast num- 
bers of them, have oft- 
en been described by 
Fig. i50.-cape Penguin. travelers. They make 

a singular appearance standing on the shore in dense col- 
umns in immense multitudes. The largest species of 
Patagonian Penguin is four feet high, and weighs forty 
pounds. These birds, looked at in front, appear, Avith 
their fin-like wings hanging down like arms, as so many 
children with white aprons on. 

296. The Gulls, in strong contrast with the family just 
noticed, are distinguished by great power of flight. They 
are found at sea at all distances, and never at any dis- 
tance inland, and they are therefore said to be oceanic in 
their habits. They obtain their food at or near the sur- 
face of the water, and so are not good divers. The 
Stormy Petrel, Fig. 151 (p. 184), the smallest of all web- 
footed birds, belongs to this family. It is distributed over 
every part of the ocean. It is called by the sailor Moth- 
er Carey's Chicken, and is associated in his mind with 
the idea of a storm, because it is so much at ease even in 
the most violent storms, coursing over the waves in the 
most sportive manner. These birds are fond of accom- 



184 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 151.— Stonny Petrel. 



panying ships in their 
course, and in doing 
so, fly with the great- 
est rapidity in every 
direction, now ahead 
and now astern. 
They have the faculty 
of standing and swim- 
ming on the surface 
of the water. When 
any greasy matter is 
thrown overboard, 
they collect about it, 
and facing to the windward, they manage, with their out- 
stretched wings and their feet patting the water, to keep 
themselves stationary while they eat it. In calm weath- 
er, by a gentle action of the wings, they walk along on 
the surface of the water with the greatest ease. It was 
the w^alking of the Apostle Peter on the water that sug- 
gested the name of Petrel for these birds. 

297. To the same family belongs the Albatross, so much 
in contrast with the Stormy Petrel in size. This gigan- 
tic bird, weighing about twenty pounds, and having a 
spread of wing sometimes of fourteen feet, is an inhabit- 
ant of the southern seas. With its great power of flight, 
it is a grand and beautiful object as it sweeps over the 
surface of the Avater in chase of the Flying-fish. This and 
other fish it swallows whole, being able to appropriate in 
this way a fish of even four or five pounds. 

298. The Terns, or Sea Swallows, another branch of 
this family, are like the Swifts and the Swallows of the 
land in their long pointed wings and forked tails. Like 
them, also, they take their prey on the wing. Some of 
them live on fish, and some on insects, like the land Swal- 
lows. The common Tern, Fig. 152 (p. 185), is found in 
abundance on the shores of both continents. It lives on 
fish, which it snatches from the water as it skims over 



THE WADING AND SWIMMING BIRDS. 185 



Fig. 152. — Common Tera. 

its surface with a velocity perhaps unsurpassed by any 
bird. 

299. The last family of the Natatores, the Pelicans, are 
distinguished by the length of the hind toe and its union 
with the other toes in the web, as seen in Fig. 147. With 
this extent of web they are great swimmers ; and yet 
they often perch on trees, which the length of the hind 
toe enables them to do. The edge of the bills is gener- 
ally toothed, by Avhich they can hold securely the iish 
which they take. The true Pelicans, from which the 
whole family is named, have a large pouch of skin hang- 
ing from the lower mandible, which serves them as the 
cheek-pouches do the Monkeys. 

300. The Cormorant, Fig. 153 (p. 186), is one of this 
family. The sac is so small in the case of this bird that 
it can not be called a pouch. There is a powerful hook 
on the end of its upper mandible. It is an excellent div- 
er, and actually gives chase to fish under water, seldom 
coming up without a victim. It is a very voracious an- 
imal. Waterton gives the following account of this bird's 
operations in the water : " First raising his body nearly 
perpendicular, down he plunges into the deep, and, aft- 
er staying there a considerable time, he is sure to bring 
up a fish, which he invariably swallows head foremost. 
Sometimes half an hour elapses before he can manage to 
accommodate a large eel quietly in his stomach. You 



186 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



see him straining vio- 
lently with repeated 
efforts to gulp it, and 
when you fancy that 
the slippery mouthful 
is successfully dis- 
posed of, all of a sud- 
& den the eel retrogrades 
r^~l: upward from its dis- 
mal sepulchre, strug- 
; gling violently to es- 
;| cape. The Cormorant 
-^f: swallows it again, and 
up again it comes, and 
shows its tail a foot or 
more out of its de- 
stroyer's mouth. At 
length, worn out with 
perpetual writhings and slidings, the eel is gulped down 
into the Cormorant's stomach, there to meet its dreaded 
and inevitable fate." 

301. The Tropic Bird, Fig. 154, is reckoned among the 





Fig. 154 Tropic Bird. 



KEPTILES. 187 

Pelicans. This bird is noted for rapidity and endurance 
in flight. It has been known to be on the wing continu- 
ously for several days and nights. It sometimes takes a 
nap on the back of some turtle that it finds. The Frig- 
ate Pelican, or Man-of-war Bird, is another tropical bird 
of similar powers of flight. Its extent of wing is enor- 
mous. " Although, when stripped of its feathers," says 
Wood, "it is hardly longer than a Pigeon, yet no man 
can touch at the same time the tips of its extended 
wings." Under the throat is a large pouch of a deep red 
color, which can be distended with air at pleasure. Both 
this and the Tropic Bird are fond of capturing the Fly- 
ing-fish. 

Questions. — What is said of the Grallatores ? What are theil' fam* 
ilies ? What are the cha^racteristics of the Bustards ? What is said 
of the Great Bustard ? What of the Plovers? What of the Oyster- 
catcher ? What of the Lapwing ? What is said of the Cranes ? 
What of the Trumpeter ? What of the Herons ? Of the Spoon-bills ? 
What are the peculiarities and habits of the Rooks ? What singular 
birds are mentioned as belonging to this family ? What is said of the 
Snipes ? What of the Curlews ? What of the Avocet ? What of 
the Rail family ? What of the Jacanas ? What are the characteris- 
tics of the Natatores ? What are their families ? What is said of the 
Ducks and Geese ? What of the two kinds of Ducks ? What of the 
Swans ? What of the Flamingo ? What of the family of Divers ? 
What of the Grebes? Of the Auks? Of the Penguins? Of the 
Gulls ? Of the Stormy Petrel ? Of the Albatross ? Of the Terns ? 
Of the Pelicans ? Of the Cormorant ? Of the Tropic Bird ? Of the 
Frigate Pelican ? 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

REPTILES. 

302. The cold-blooded division of the Vertebrates com- 
prises the Reptiles and the Fishes. In the warm-blood- 
ed division the blood of each animal has a certain natural 
degree of heat, which is maintained quite uniform under 



188 NATURAL HISTOKY. 

exposures to a wide range of temperature in the atmos- 
phere. Thus, in man, the natural degree is 98° by Fahr- 
enheit's thermometer, many degrees above ordinary sum- 
mer's heat. This degree is maintained even in the severe 
cold of the arctic regions. There are various expedients 
for keeping in the heat made in the blood of the warm- 
blooded Vertebrates. Hair and fur do it in quadrupeds, 
feathers in birds, and blubber in whales. Man does the 
same by making for himself garments of materials which 
are good non-conductors of heat. Now in the cold-blood- 
ed division there is less heat made in the blood, and their 
coverings are not calculated to retain it. These animals, 
therefore, have a tendency to take the temperature of 
the air or water with which they are surrounded. 

303. I willhrst speak of Reptiles. These are so called 
from the Latin word repto^ to creep or crawl ; for, al- 
tliough some of this class have four feet, their limbs are 
generally so short that a portion of the body is dragged 
along upon the eai'th. 

304. The skeleton is much more varied in Reptiles 
than in the warm-blooded Vertebrates. In some of the 
Snake group all the parts of the skeleton are absent ex- 
cept the Jiead, the chain of vertebrae, and the ribs, which 
are very numerous, amounting, in some cases, to several 
hundred. While in the Snake tribe the breast-bone is 
wanting, in the Turtle tribe it is expanded into a large 
under shield, the ribs also expanding above into an upper 
shield. 

305. Reptiles can execute less rapid and less prolonged 
motions than warm-blooded animals. This is because the 
blood which circulates in the muscles and in all their or- 
gans is less stimulating. This can be seen to be true by 
observing how the mode of their circulation differs from 
that of Mammals and Birds. That this may be clear to 
you, I will make use of two diagrams, showing the plan 
of the circulation in each. 

306. The first diagram. Fig. 155, giving the plan of the 



KEPTILES. 



189 




Fig. 155. 



circulation in Mammals 
and Birds, is taken from 
my First Book in Phys- 
iology. In this figure, in 
f which the shaded part 
shows where the blood 
is dark, a is the right au- 
ricle, which receives the 
dark venous blood from 
all parts of the body. 
From this it passes into 5, the right ventricle, and this 
forces it out toward the lungs, c. Here it becomes red or 
arterial by exposure to the air which we breathe. It is 
now returned to the left side of the heart, and is re- 
ceived by the left auricle, which passes it into the left 
ventricle. From thence it is sent to the general system, 
f. Here it becomes dark by being used, and then re- 
turns to the right auricle, a, where we began to trace it. 
307. The diagram, Fig. 156, is the plan of the circula- 
tion in a Reptile. In 



this, a is the right au- 
ricle, which receives 
the dark blood from 
the general system,/*, 
and d the left auricle, 
which receives the ar- 
terial or red blood 
from the lungs, c. But 
the blood from the 
two auricles mixes to- 
gether in one ventri- 




Fig. 156. 



cle, 5, and this mixture of red and dark blood goes alike 
to the lungs and to all the organs, as you see represented 
in the diagram. The dark shading shows where there is 
venous or dark blood, the light shading where there is 
the mixture of venous and arterial blood, and the blood 
is arterial or red where there is no shading. 



190 NATURAL HISTOEY. 

308. You see, then, that the brain, muscles, and other 
organs in the Reptile are stimulated with the mixture, 
which is not so stimulating or life-giving as pure arterial 
blood. It is therefore a less lively animal than those 
whose organs have arterial blood continually pumped 
into them by the heart. It therefore moves but little and 
slowly. Its circulation is slow, and so also is its breath- 
ing. 

309. But, while life is dull in reptiles, it is not easily de- 
stroyed. They will bear being maimed to a great ex- 
tent. If you destroy the brain or spinal cord of a warm- 
blooded animal, all signs of life soon cease ; but if this be 
done to a reptile, motions can be excited for a long time 
by pricking, or other modes of stimulation. The limbs 
of a turtle which has been dead for several days may be 
made to move by pricking them, showing that there is 
some life in their muscles still. So, also, the two parts 
of a snake cut in two will move independently for some 
time, and the tail of a lizard will move for some hours 
after it is cut off. The reptiles of temperate climates 
crawl into some secret place as winter comes on, and go 
into a state of perfect torpor which lasts till spring. They 
are therefore called hibernating animals. 

310. The brain of reptiles is very small, for they have 
but little thinking to do. They have no special organ of 
touch, and their covering is such that they can have but 
little sensibility in it. The sense of taste and that of 
smell are dull. Vision is not very acute, and the appa- 
ratus of hearing is much less complete than in the warm- 
blooded animals. 

311. Almost all reptiles are carnivorous. The turtles 
and crocodiles divide their food more or less with their 
jaws; but the snakes or serpents swallow theif food 
whole. In their case the throat can be so much dilated 
that they can swallow an animal larger than themselves. 

312. Reptiles are like birds in two things : they do not 
suckle their young, and they produce them from eggs. 



REPTILES. 191 

They generally deposit their eggs in warm sandy places, 
leaving them to be hatched by the warmth of the atmos- 
phere. 

313. There are five orders of Reptiles: 1. TheTmlles 
or Tortoises. 2. The Crocodiles. 3. The Lizards. 4. The 
Serpents. 5. The Amphibia. 

314. The Tortoises are unlike all other animals in their 
covering. They are in a fortified house of bone and horn, 
which they carry around with them. Into this they can 
wholly retire when attacked. In some of the Land Tur- 
tles this covering is so jointed that they can close the 
openings before and behind after drawing in the head, 
legs, and tail, thus shutting the doors of their portable 
house against their enemies. The construction of this 
covering is worthy of examination. It is composed of 
two shields, an upper and a lower one. The upper one, 
called the carapace, has a coating of plates of horn. As 
the turtle grows, each plate grows by enlargement around 
its edge. The tortoise-shell, so much used in making 
combs, comes from this coating in one species. On re- 
moving this, we see that the carapace is comj^osed of a 
large number of plates of bone, very nicely and firmly 
joined together. There is a row of eight plates through 
the middle, and these are appendages of the vertebrae of 
the back of the animal. These vertebrae you see in Fig. 
6, where the lower shield is removed, so that you have a 
view of the under surface of the carapace. As the ribs 
extend from the vertebrae they expand, thus making some 
of its side plates. The lower shield, called the plastron, 
is the same thing as the breast-bone of other animals, 
only it is enormously large. 

315. Life in these animals goes on at a low rate, and 
lasts a long time — in some cases even over two hundred 
years. Their sensibilities are dull, and it is very difiicult 
to kill them, as they survive the severest injuries. They 
vary considerably in the form of their feet and of their 
shell, especially the former, according to their mode of 



192 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

living. There are four families — Land Tortoises, Marsh 
Tortoises, River Tortoises, and Marine Tortoises or Tur- 
tles. • 

316. The Land Tortoises have short stumpy feet, some- 
what like those of the Elephant, the toes not being sepa- 
rate, and the claws alone being apparent. They are, for 
the most part, inhabitants of the warmer regions, though 
some species live in colder climates, passing the winter, 
however, in a state of hibernation. Some very large spe- 
cies are found in and near the tropics. Thus, at the Gal- 
lipagos Islands, there are great numbers of Land Tor- 
toises weighing over two hundred pounds. The food of 
the Land Tortoises is wholly vegetable. They are quiet, 
inoffensive animals, never making any attack, and when 
attacked they draw their extremities and head wholly 
within their portable house. 

317. The Marsh Tortoises form an extensive family, dif- 
fused through the warmer countries of both continents. 
They are found in swamps, lakes, ponds, and small riv- 
ers. They swim easily, as their feet are expanded, and 
have a web between the toes. Their covering is not as 
firm as that of the Land Tortoises. The River Tortoises 
are another similar family, found in the large rivers. The 
American Snapping Turtle, which devours such quanti- 
ties of young Alligators, belongs to this family. There 
is a similar species in the Nile equally destructive to the 
young Crocodiles. Both of these families are carnivo- 
rous, living on fish, reptiles, birds, and insects. The bony 
plates of the carapace of the River Tortoises are thinner 
than those of the Marsh Tortoises, and they are some- 
what imperfect. Besides, the carapace has a coating of 
a leathery character in place of the horny plates of the 
previously noticed families. These animals are therefore 
sometimes called Soft Tortoises. 

318. The Marine Tortoises or Turtles have their feet 
modified so as to be really fins or flippers. The anterior 
pair are most developed, as seen in Fig. 157, the Green 



EEPTILES. 193 



Turtle, and Avith these the animal moves rapidly through 
the water, they being a pair of aquatic wings. On land, 



Fig. 15T.— Green Turtle. 

their walk is an awkward shuffle with these flippers. 
They are very convenient instruments, however, in scoop- 
ing out holes in the sand for their eggs. Nearly two 
hundred eggs are laid in one nest. When laid, they are 
covered up with the sand. The white of these eggs, 
which are highly prized, does not harden in boiling. The 
Green Turtle, the flesh of which is considered so great a 
luxury, is common on the shores of most of the islands 
of the East and West Indies. It has been known to 
reach a weight of five or six hundred pounds. The tor- 
toise-shell of commerce comes from the Hawksbill Tur- 
tle. In this animal the horny plates are large, and are 
arranged like shingles on a roof 

319. Of the second order of Reptiles, the Crocodiles, 
there are two groups — the true Crocodiles, common to 
both hemispheres, but most abundant in the Nile and 
other African rivers, and in the Ganges ; and the Alliga- 
tors, which are confined to America. There is not any 
very great difierence between them ; but the Crocodiles 
are more thoroughly aquatic than the Alligators, and 

I 



194 



IN^ATUKAL HISTOKY. 



therefore have their hind feet more largely webbed. In 
the covering of both there are huge bony plates on the 
back and tail, rising into a prominent dentated ridge on 
the latter. This ridge is very elevated in the Crocodile 
of the Ganges, making the tail a very efficient instrument 
in swimming. These animals swim, in part, by the pad- 
dling operation of their hind feet, and in part by the scull- 
ing of the long, vertically flattened tail. 




Fig. 158.— Crocodile. 

320. There is a singular arrangement of the circulation 
in this order of reptiles. There are two ventricles in the 
heart, as in the Mammals and the Birds ; but the red and 
dark blood are mingled together a little distance from 
the heart. This is not done, however, till those arteries 
branch off which carry the blood to the anterior part of 
the body. The result is, that the head and fore legs are 
supplied with pure arterial blood, while all the posterior 
parts are supplied with that mixture of red and dark 
blood which is supplied to all the organs of the other 



REPTILES. 195 

reptiles. Why this exception is made in this order we 
know not. 

321. In Fig. 158 (page 194) is represented the common 
Crocodile. Its muzzle is more elongated than that of the 
Alligators. That of the Crocodile of the Ganges, called 
the Gavial, is more prominent still, and it is terminated 
by a cartilaginous or gristly protuberance, in which are 
the openings of the nostrils. This animal is frequently 
twenty-five feet long, and is very formidable from its 
strength and ferocity. It is of great service in devour- 
ing the dead bodies of men and animals which are com- 
mitted to the sacred river, and which would otherAvise 
taint the air in their decay. 

322. The AUigators or Caymans are less aquatic than 
the Crocodiles. They frequent swamps and marshes 
more than rivers. They are very dexterous in catching 
fish. They sometimes drive a shoal of them into a creek, 
and then with open mouth plunge among them. They 
also catch pigs, dogs, and other animals that venture too 
near the water. 

Questions. — What are the two great classes of cold-blooded Verte- 
brates ? How do they diiFer in regard to heat from the warm-blood- 
ed ? What expedients are adopted in the latter to prevent the heat 
from escaping ? What is said of the name, Reptile ? What is said 
of the skeleton of reptiles ? What of their power of motion ? De- 
scribe the circulation of the warm-blooded Vertebrates. Describe that 
of Reptiles. What relation has the peculiarity of their circulation to 
their motion ? What is said of their tenacity of life ? What be- 
comes of them in winter in temperate climates ? What is said of the 
nervous system of the senses in reptiles? What is their food? What 
is said of the manner in which serpents eat ? In what are reptiles 
like birds? What are the orders of reptiles? Describe the covering 
of Tortoises? What is said of life in them ? What are their fami- 
lies ? What is said of the Land Tortoises ? Of the Marsh Tortoises ? 
Of the River Tortoises? Of the Marine Tortoises? Of the Green 
Turtle ? What is said of the two groups of Crocodiles ? What is the 
peculiarity in the circulation in this order ? What is said of the com- 
mon Crocodile ? What of the Alligator ? 



196 NATURAL HISTORY. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

REPTILES — continued, 

323. The order of Lizards comprises a great variety 
of animals exhibiting some of the characteristics of the 
Crocodile tribe mingled with some which are peculiar to 
the Serpents. They resemble the former in their long 
body, tapering off in a tail ; but, instead of the large bony 
plates of the Crocodiles, they have the small scales of the 
Serpent tribe ; and, though they usually have four feet, 
in some of them there is but one pair, and in others the 
feet are so short, and so covered up by the skin, that the 
animal looks entirely like a snake. There is much vari- 
ety in the habits of this order. Some are more or less 
aquatic ; some are terrestrial, digging holes in the ground 
as places of retreat ; and others are wholly arboreal. 
Their colors have a relation to their habits ; the ground 
Lizards being brown and speckled, while the tree Lizards 
have bright colors, green predominating. When the sun 
wakes up the latter to activity, their quick movements 
make the play of their brilliant colors very beautiful. 
The principal families in this order are the following: 1. 
The Chameleons. 2. The Geckos. 3. The Iguanas. 4. 
The Monitors. 5. The true Lizards. 6. The Snake Liz- 
ards. 7. The Naked-eyed Lizards. 

324. The Chameleons are distributed through the 
warmer parts of the Old World, but are not found in the 
New. They are distinguished from the other families 
by very marked peculiarities. Their bodies are flattened 
sideways, and there is a sharp ridge along the length of 
the back. Of the five toes of each foot, two are directed 
backward, so that the animal can grasp firmly the branch- 
es of trees in climbing. Its tapering tail is also prehen- 
sile, and is used in its arboreal mode of life as the Spider 



EEPTILES. 



197 



Monkeys use theirs (§ 53). Its movements are slow. 
No part of it moves quickly but its tongue. This is a 
singular instrument. It is a long hollow tube with a 
swollen fleshy extremity, which is always covered with a 
glutinous substance. In catching insects it is darted out 
and returned into the mouth with a velocity which al- 
most eludes the eye, the glutinous secretion making the 
insect to adhere to the tongue. The eyes of the Chame- 
leon can be moved independently of each other, which 
gives the animal a strange aspect, one eye, perhaps, be- 
ing directed forward, while the other is directed back- 
ward. The skin is covered with horny granulations. 
The changeableness of the color of the skin has been ex- 
aggerated ; still, the change is perceptible through vari- 
ous shades from light to dark, owing to changes in the 
arrangement of the granules in the skin, and in the amount 
of blood in them. The lungs are large, and there are air- 
sacs connected with them in various parts of the body. 
When these are full of air the animal looks bloated, but 
the next minute it may appear lean and shrunken, having 
emptied these sacs. The story that the Chameleon lives 
on air gained currency partly from this circumstance, 
and partly from the almost invisible quickness of motion 
of the tongue, really invisible to the careless observer. 
The common Chameleon, Fig. 159, abounds in Northern 
Africa, the south of Spain, and Sicily. 




Fig. 159.— Chameleon. 



198 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



325. The Geckos, Fig. 160, are nocturnal Lizards, very 
numerous in the southern portion of Asia. They are con- 




Fig. 160.— Gecko. 

cealed in crevices in the day, but come forth at night in 
search of their insect prey. They run about on the 
smooth walls and ceilings with perfect ease, their feet 
being furnished with an apparatus like a boy's sucker. 

326. The Iguana family is a very extensive one. It 
contains over one hundred and fifty species, many of 




Fig. ISl.—Tuberculated Iguana. 



EEPTILES. 199 

which are among the largest of the Lizard tribe. The 
general aspect of the true Iguanas, which are found only 
in America, can be seen in Fig. 161 (p. 198), theTubercu- 
lated Iguana. They have a long flexible tail, a crested 
ridge along the back and tail, and a dewlap under the 
throat which the animal can distend with air. The Tu- 
berculated Iguana, sometimes reaching even six feet in 
length, is found in South America and the West Indies. 
With this family is allied the fossil Iguanodon, whose re- 
mains show that it could not have been less than forty 
feet in length. A very harmless little Lizard, with the 
terrible name of Flying Dragon, may be considered as 
belonging to this family, because it has the characteristic 
scales of the Iguanas and the dewlap. It has, like the 
Flying Squirrel, a wing-like expansion of the skin on each 
side of the body, and uses it for a similar purpose. Some 
of the ribs of the animal extend out as a frame-work to 
these wings. When running about on the branches of a 
tree they are folded to the side, but when it wishes to go 
from one tree to another, or to descend to the ground, 
it raises the ribs, thus expanding the so-called wings. 
This animal is found in the Asiatic Archipelago. 

327. The remaining families of Lizards have slen- 
der tongues, which are also more or less forked. The 
family of Monitors includes some of the largest of the 
Lizards. They are graceful and agile animals, living on 
large insects, eggs, birds, small Mammalia, reptiles, and 
fish. The Monitor of the Xile, which is about six feet 
long, is very destructive to the eggs and the young of the 
Crocodile. Its name of Monitor is derived from the hiss- 
ing noise w^hich it makes when it sees a Crocodile ap- 
proaching, thus giving a warning to any one that hap- 
pens to be near. There are Monitors, also, in this coun- 
try, which give a similar warning of the approach of the 
Alligator. 

328. The true Lizards are bright -eyed, slender, and 
lively little animals, with brilliant colors, especially those 



200 



NATURAL HISTOEY. 



that live in verdant places. They are found in all warm 
countries except Australia and the Polynesian Islands. 
Some are natives, also, of temperate climates, passing the 
winter in a torpid state. The common Lizard, Fig. 162, 




Fig. 162. — Common Lizard. 

is only about six inches long. In all the animals of this 
family the tail is exceedingly brittle, snapping off like 
glass even with a slight touch. It grows out again, how- 
ever, and if the tail be cracked without being broken off, 
a new tail will spring from the crack, so that the animal 
will have thus a forked tail. 

329. In the family of Snake Lizards we find a series of 
forms, in which we see a gradual transition from the or- 
der of Lizards to that of Serpents. In some of these an- 
imals there are four feet, as seen in Fig. 163, the Snake 
Lizard of the South of Africa. Others have but two feet. 




163. — Snake Lizard. 



Others still have nothing but the mere rudiments of feet 
concealed in the skin. Of this latter kind is the Blind- 
worm or Slow-worm. This animal, which is about a foot 
in length, is as brittle as the tail of the true Lizards. The 



REPTILES. 201 

Glass Snake of this country is also one of the same kind 
of Snake Lizards. 

330. In the family of ISTaked-eyed Lizards the approach 
to the Serpents is still greater. KTot only is the body 
snake-like, but the eyes are, as in the Snakes, destitute 
of eyelids, and covered only with a transparent portion 
of the skin. Most of the species of this family are na- 
tives of Austraha, and only one is found in America. 

331. "We now come to the order of Snakes or Serpents. 
The grand peculiarities of this order are the total ab- 
sence of limbs, the great flexibility of the chain of verte- 
brae, which runs through the whole length of the animal, 
and the covering of scales. Over the scales spreads very 
closely a thin delicate skin, which is shed every year or 
oftener, a new one forming in its place. The separation 
is begun at the head, and the skin, in being cast off, is 
turned inside out, as we sometimes turn the finger of a 
glove. The Serpents of temperate climates hibernate, 
and on waking up in the spring cast off their skins. 

332. The skeleton of a serpent is very simple, consist- 
ing only of the skull, the column of vertebrae, and the 
ribs. There is no breast-bone. Each vertebra is united 
by a ball and socket joint Avith the one next to it. It is 
this arrangement that enables the animal to execute its 
free and graceful movements. The vertebrae, in some 
cases, number as high as three hundred. 

333. The ordinary forward movement of the Serpent 
is made by the ribs, the scale which is at the end of each 
one of them acting as a foot on the ground. These scales 
being successively pushed backward against the earth, 
the animal is moved forward. But sometimes it gathers 
itself up into a coil, and then, by the sudden straighten- 
ing out of its whole body, it can at once reach more than 
its whole length, leaping upon its prey. 

334. The senses of the Serpents are not highly devel- 
oped. Sight is the most perfect of all its senses. The 
eves, however, are small, without evelids, being covered 

12 



202 NATURAL HISTORY. 

with a transparent membrane which is shed with the 
skin. The tongue is soft, and forked at its end, and it is 
not very sensitive. The smell and the touch are both 
rather dull. Serpents have teeth, but not for mastication. 
They only serve to retain their food. 

335. The species of this order may be grouped in two 
classes — the Viperine and the Colubrine Snakes. The 
Viperine Serpents have a peculiar venomous apparatus. 
There are two teeth or fangs in the upper jaw, connect- 
ed with the gland in w^hich the poison is made. They 
are movable, and when the animal does not wish to use 
them, they lie backward, concealed along the roof of the 
mouth. When the serpent bites, he throws these fangs 
forward, and, at the same time, a muscle, pressing on the 
gland, forces out the venom, w^hich passes along a canal 
in the fang. Most of the Colubrine Snakes are not ven- 
omous, and those w^hich are have stationary instead of 
movable fangs. 

336. There are two families of the Viperine Snakes — 
the Viperidse and the Crotalidse. The Viperidae belong 
exclusively to the eastern hemisphere. Those of the trop- 
ical regions are the most venomous. To this family be- 
longs the Horned Viper, so called from a small pointed 
horn above each eye. This is supposed to be the Asp, 
from whose bite Cleopatra died. The Puff Adders of 
Africa also belong to this family. 

337. Of the family Crotalidse, the true Rattlesnakes, 
Fig. 164 (p. 203), are confined to this country, but there 
are other species found in Asia. The rattle consists of 
a number of thin, horny appendages, which are loosely 
jointed together, and which make a rustling noise when 
the snake moves. The number of joints is increased, up 
to a certain amount at least, with each casting of the skin. 

338. The Colubrine Snakes have two families — the Co- 
lubridae or Colubers, and the Boidae or Boas. The fami- 
ly of Colubers contains more than half the whole number 
of species of Snakes. Of the comparatively few of these 



REPTILES. 



203 







Fig. 1G4.— Rattlesnake. 

winch are venomous, tlie Cobra di Capello of India, Fig. 
165, is the most noted. This belongs to the Hooded 
Snakes, so called from a peculiar arrangement of the skin 



;^%> 




Fig. 165.— Cobra di Capello. 



204 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of the neck, by which, when the animal is irritated, it is 
made to take the form of a hood. While the Colubers 
are very widely distributed in the earth, the Boas are 
confined to hot climates. The latter are Serpents of enor- 
mous size and great muscular strength ; and from their 
power of coiling round their victims and compressing 
them, they are able to overcome animals of very large 
dimensions. After destroying the life of their victims 
by compression, they proceed to swallow them whole ; 
and such is the power of distention in their throats, that 
they can do this with men and even with cattle. The 
usual length of Boas is from fifteen to thirty feet, but 
there is a well-authenticated account of the killing of one 
which measured sixty-two feet. 

339. There remains to be considered another order of 
reptiles — the Amphibia (a^^tgioc, a7nphihios^ having a 
double life) . They are sometimes, also, called Batrachia. 
These reptiles, including Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, etc., 
are intermediate between the other orders of reptiles and 
fishes. When first born, they are, like fishes, possessed 
of gills, and live wholly in the water. Then a series of 
changes takes place, the animal being at length endowed 
Avith lungs in place of gills, and fitted to live on land. 
This may be exemplified by reference to the Frog, which 
is at first a Tadpole, living in the water, having fringed 
gills and a long tail, with which it swims with considera- 
ble agility. It goes through a succession of changes, in 
which it loses its tail and its gills, and gains four legs 
and a pair of lungs. You will find these changes repre- 
sented in my " Human Physiology," page 113. Some of 
the animals of this order do not lose their gills in the 
transformation, but, in their perfect state, have both gills 
and lungs. These, in the strict sense of the term, are 
amphibious, or double lived. 

340. In their perfect or mature state the Amphibia 
are, in most respects, like the reptiles which we have al- 
ready noticed, and therefore are properly classed with 



REPTILES. 205 

them. They differ from them in some respects, a few of 
which I will notice. Prominent among these is the se- 
ries of changes in passing to their mature state, of which 
I have just spoken. The reptiles of the other orders are 
covered with plates, or shields, or scales ; but the Am- 
phibia have a smooth skin, with the exception of a few 
species, whose scales are much like those of a fish. This 
skin is in many cases moist, and in some the secretion 
which makes it so is irritating to one who handles the 
animal. The Amphibia have no ribs, and therefore, not 
having the means of dilating the chest, must swallow air 
as they swallow food, directing the one to the lungs and 
the other to the stomach. You can therefore suffocate a 
Frog or any animal of this order by wedging its mouth 
wide open ; that is, you prevent the air from going into 
its lungs as effectually as it is done with most other an- 
imals by closing the passage to the lungs. There is one 
other order of reptiles of which the same is true — the 
Tortoises. This is partly because the ribs are joined to 
the carapace (§ 314), and therefore are not movable, and 
partly because the plastron below does not permit that 
protrusion of the abdomen which we see always pro- 
duced by the action of a diaphragm. No reptiles have 
a diaphragm, but all except the Tortoises and the Am- 
phibia can dilate the lungs by means of their ribs. The 
feet of the Amphibia are without claws. Their eggs 
have no hard covering or shell. They are usually de- 
posited in the water, even in the case of those that live 
mostly on the land. They are enveloped in a glutinous 
matter, which unites them in masses, or in chains, the 
latter looking like necklaces of black beads. 

341. The tongues of the Batrachians are commonly 
large and fleshy. In the Frogs and Toads there is a very 
peculiar arrangement. The tongue is fastened to the 
front of the jaw, and its tip extends backward toward 
the throat. It is covered with a slimy substance, as the 
end of the Chameleon's tongue is (§ 324), and for a sim- 



206 NATUKAL HISTORY. 

ilar purpose. Like the tongue of that animal, it is dart- 
ed out and returned with such velocity, in catching in- 
sects, that we must be very quick of sight to see the 
thing done. Even the nimble Fly that comes near to the 
lazy Toad is not quick enough to escape its tongue. 

342. The chief families in this order are, 1. The Rani- 
dae, or Frogs. 2. The Bufonidae, or Toads. 3. The Sala- 
mandridse, or Salamanders. 4. The Sirenidae, or Sirens ; 
and, 5. The Apoda, or Footless Amphibia. 

343. The Frogs, although good swimmers, and found 
in the neighborhood of water, pass most of their time on 
land, catching insects w^ith their tongues. They have 
teeth in the upper jaw. Their hind legs are long, and 
they are therefore good at leaping. The noisy Bull-frog 
is found only in North America. It lives on fish and 
snakes as w^ell as insects. The Edible or Green Frog 
abounds in Europe, and is thought much of as an article 
for the table. In some places it is fattened in " frogger- 
ies" for this purpose. The Tree Frogs are arboreal, as 
their name indicates. To enable them to retain their 
position easily as they leap about among the branches, 
their toes have little suction pads, similar to those of the 
Geckos (§ 325), which, to make them the more efficient, 
are always covered with a glutinous secretion. Like the 
common Frogs, they breed in the water, and bury them- 
selves in the mud for their winter's sleep. 

344. The Toads have no teeth in the upper jaw as the 
Frogs do. They have also shorter legs, and therefore 
have less power of leaping. The skin has wart-like pro- 
jections, from which an acrid fluid is secreted. The Su- 
rinam Toad, which is put by some into a separate family, 
is a very singular animal. It has no tongue, and its hind 
feet are webbed. It is found in dark corners about 
houses in Guiana and Surinam. Its eggs are hatched in 
a curious way. The male places them in little pits on 
the back of the female, each pit having a lid ; and, when 
hatched, the little Toads, lifting the lids, hop out. There 



REPTILES. 



207 



is a small Frog in Venezuela that has a similar contriv- 
ance, hatching its eggs in a pouch on its back. 

345. The common N^ewt, Fig. 166, is a specimen of the 




Fig. 166 Common Newt. 

Salamander family. It feeds chiefly on Tadpoles and 
worms, which it eats with a peculiar quick snap. These 
animals are, you see, much like the Lizards in shape; 
but they are considered as belonging to this order, be- 
cause they go through with the changes sjDoken of in 
§ 339. The true Salamander is a land animal of the same 
general character with the Water Xewt, but having a 
rounded tail. The stories about its being capable of liv- 
ing in the midst of fire are wholly unfounded. 

346. The Sirens have only the anterior legs developed, 
and that only to a small extent. They are found princi- 
pally in the marshy rice-fields of the Southern States of 
this country. One species sometimes reaches a length 
of three feet. The Footless family contains but a sin- 
gle genus — the Blind Newt, or Naked Serpent. Cuvier 
placed it among the Serpents on account of its snake-like 
form. But it has no scales, and it is found to undergo 
the metamorphosis, or change of form, common to all the 
Amphibia. 



208 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Questions. — What is said of the Lizard tribe? "What are the chief 
families ? Where are the Chameleons found ? What are their char- 
acteristics? What is said of their tongues'? Of their eyes? Of their 
changing color ? Of their air-sacs ? What is said of the Geckos ? 
What of the Iguana family? Of the Iguanodon? Of the Flying 
Dragon ? Of the Monitors ? What is said of the true Lizards ? 
What of the Snake Lizards ? Of the Naked-eyed Lizards ? What 
are the peculiarities of the Snakes or Serpents ? What is said of their 
skeleton ? How does a serpent execute its movements ? What is said 
of the senses of Serpents ? What are the two classes of Serpents ? 
What is the great peculiarity of the Viperine class ? What are its two 
families ? What animals are mentioned as belonging to the Viperi- 
dae ? What is said of the Crotalida? What are the two families of 
the Colubrine Snakes ? What is said of the Colubers ? What of the 
Boas ? What does the order of Amphibia include ? From what does 
their name come? What is said of their metamorphosis? How do 
they differ from other reptiles? What is said of their tongues? 
What are their families ? What is said of the Frogs ? Of the Toads ? 
Of the common Newt? Of the Salamanders ? Of the Sirens ? 



CHAPTER XX. 

FISHES. 

347. The Fishes constitute the second division of cold- 
blooded Vertebrates. They are the only vertebrated an- 
imals that are fitted to live entirely in the water. All 
the peculiarities of their structure have reference to this 
mode of life. These I vrill proceed to point out. 

348. All animals must breathe in order to live ; that 
is, they can not live unless they have the blood exposed 
to the action of the air. This is as true of Fishes as it is 
of other animals. They breathe the air mmgled with 
water, and can not live in water that has no air in it. 
This can be proved by experiment. If a fish be put into 
a close vessel, it soon uses up all the air in the water ; 
and it dies if more air be not introduced into the water 
by unclosing the vessel. A fish dying in this way may 
be trulv said to be choionecL 



FISHES. 209 

349. The Fish has not lungs, for these are organs which 
are fitted to introduce air alone to the blood. But it has 
gills^ which are fitted to have the blood in them acted 
upon by the air that is mingled with water. These gills 
are fringes which are made up of very minute blood-ves- 
sels. There are commonly four of them, fixed to some 
arches of bone ; and they are covered on the outside by 
a lid, called the operculum. In order to have the air in 
the water act on the blood in them, the water is taken 
into the mouth, and then passes out through these frmges. 
If you watch fishes in an aquarium, you will see the mouth 
constantly opened to take in the water, and the opercu- 
lum as constantly raised to let it out. 

350. When a fish is taken out of the water it really 
dies for want of air, although it is in the midst of a plenty 
of it. The explanation is this : the fringes of the gills 
are kept apart by the water while the fish is in its native 
element ; but, when taken out of it, the fringes fall to- 
gether, and soon become dry. When they are in this 
condition the blood will not circulate freely in them, and 
what blood is there is not acted upon by the air. In 
agreement with this explanation we find that those fishes 
which live the shortest time out of the water have their 
gills most exposed, while those that live a longer time 
have their gill-openings narrow, thus tending to keep the 
fringes moist. In some there is an especial arrangement 
for moistening them, and in such a case the fish can live 
in air quite a long time. Dr. Carpenter states that some 
fishes having this arrangement are accustomed to leave 
the water and crawl about in the grass or on the ground. 

351. The plan of the circulation in the Fish is peculiar. 
In the Mammals and Birds there is a double heart, as 
illustrated in Fig. 155. In Reptiles the heart is double 
only so far as the auricles are concerned, as illustrated in 
Fig. 156. In Fishes the heart is single, having but one 
auricle and one ventricle. The blood passes from the 
ventricle to the 2:ills. Here it becomes arterial blood, as 



210 ISTATUEAL HISTORY. 

the blood of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles does in the 
lungs. But, while their blood returns to the heart from 
the lungs before it is distributed over the system, the 
blood of the Fish is distributed directly from the gills. 

352. The circulation of Fishes is not as active as that 
of Mammals and Birds, and their blood is cold like that 
of Reptiles. We can readily see why it is best that it 
should be cold. There are only two ways in which it 
could be kept warm, like that of warm-blooded animals. 
One is by having a covering of feathers or of fur, as in 
the case of animals living in air. But such a covering 
would interfere very much with swimming. Another 
way to retain the heat would be to have, like the whales, 
a thick layer of fat under the skin. This would be very 
burdensome ; and, besides, man does not need such a sup- 
ply of fat and oil as this arrangement in the Fishes would 
give him. 

353. The shape of the Fish is such as to let it move eas- 
ily through the water. It has, commonly, a long, spin- 
dle-like shape, with an even surface. It has no neck, 
chiefly because any irregularity in its surface would hin- 
der its rapidity of motion. Its outer covering favors its 
gliding through the water, for it is generally composed 
of smooth scales, one overlapping another, like shingles 
or tiles. Then there is a slimy, oily secretion over the 
whole surface, heljDing it to move smoothly through the 
water. 

354. The Fish is nearly of the same specific gravity with 
water. It is therefore obliged to make very little efibrt 
in going upward. It is in strong contrast with the Birds 
in this respect. A bird, in mounting upward, exerts 
great force with its broad wings and its large muscles, 
because it is in an element which is so much lighter than 
itself. But as the fish is in an element only a little light- 
er than itself, it needs but a small apparatus to move in 
it, and, accordingly, its tail and fins are much smaller in 
proportion to its bulk than are the wings of birds in pro- 



FISHES. 211 

portion to theirs. For the same reason, while man can 
swim with his hands and feet, he can not fly. The Fly- 
ing Fish, Fig. 167, is enabled to fly by having fins which 
approach in extent the wings of a bird. 




Fig. 161 Flying Fish. 

355. Besides, most fishes have a peculiar contrivance 
for enabling them to rise and fall in the water easily. It 
is a bladder of air which the fish has the power of com- 
pressing or enlarging at pleasure. If the fish wishes to 
go down rapidly in the waiter, it compresses this air-blad- 
der, and so increases its specific gravity. If, now, it wish- 
es to rise, it takes ofi* the pressure from the air-bladder, 
which therefore enlarges to its former dimensions, and 
lessens the specific gravity of the fish, or, in other words, 
makes its bulk greater, while the weight remains the 
same. Sometimes the fish loses its power of compress- 
ing the air-bladder, and then it is so light all the time 
that it has no power to go down in the water. A gen- 
tleman had a Goldfish which swam with its belly upward, 
probably from a wrong position of the air-bladder. 

356. The chief agent in swimming in the Fish is the 
tail, which acts like a scuUing-oar, moving to the one side 
and the other alternately. It is terminated, for this pur- 



212 NATURAL HISTORY. 

pose, with a considerable finny expansion, consisting of a 
skin, over a frame-work which is sometimes bony, and 
sometimes cartilaginous or gristly. It is constructed, 
therefore, very much hke the wing of a bat. The fins 
are similarly constructed. These generally act chiefly.as 
balancers and directors of the movement, while the scull- 
ing tail propels. That the side or pectoral fins, however, 
have considerable agency in propelling, can be seen very 
readily, if you watch the movements of fishes in an aqua- 
rium. They obviously narrow and widen as they are 
moved, widening when they make a propelling stroke. 

357. The skeletons of Fishes are not as firm as those 
of other Vertebrates. In some, even, they are not real 
bone, but are cartilaginous or gristly. The reason of this 
difierence is plain. As the Fish moves in an element of 
nearly the same specific gravity with itself, it puts forth 
but little strength in its movements. The points of sup- 
port, therefore, for the muscles need not to be so firm as 
they are in animals living in air and exerting motions 
that require considerable force, such as springing from 
the ground, grasping, flying, etc. 

358. We see a marked adaptation in the Fish to its 
mode of life in the organs of sense and the brain. Its 
life is passed mostly in obtaining its food and in escaping 
from its enemies. Its life is a lazy one compared with 
that of animals that run, and dig, and scratch, and climb, 
and fly. It shows, neither, any remarkable instincts. It 
therefore does not need much of a brain, for its range of 
thought is very limited; neither does it require acute- 
ness in the senses to meet its wants. Its brain is there- 
fore small, and the organs of sense are not as fully devel- 
oped as in some other animals. It has little sense of 
touch, and it is mostly confined to the lips. The fila- 
ments which some have about the mouth are probably 
organs of touch, informing of the contact of bodies just 
as the whiskers of a cat do. The eyes of a fish are large 
and nearly immovable. As they are lubricated by the 



FISHES. 213 

water, they need no eyelids and no tear-apparatiis, and 
accordingly have none. For protection of the eye the 
skin is continued over it, but it is so thin that the light 
is readily transmitted through it. The organs of the 
sense of smell are better developed than those of any 
other sense, and its smell is therefore acute, undoubtedly 
to aid it in the search of its food. Its sense of taste, on 
the other hand, is dull, probably because, for the most 
part, the food is swallowed whole, and is not detained 
long in the mouth. 

359. Fishes are very voracious, and their food is most- 
ly animal, few, comparatively, feeding upon vegetables. 
Some live on the soft-bodied animals floating in great 
numbers in the sea, of which I shall treat in another part 
of this book. Others live on shell-fish, and animals that 
are covered with a hard crust, such as lobsters, crabs, 
etc. Many fishes in fresh water live on worms and the 
grubs of insects. Then, too, fishes feed to a large extent 
on fishes that are smaller than themselves. In this re- 
spect such fishes have a resemblance to the carnivorous 
Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles. It is stated that, " at a 
lecture delivered before the Zoological Society of Dublin, 
Dr. Houston exhibited, as ' a fair sample of a fish's break- 
fast,' a Frog-fish two and a half feet long, in the stomach 
of which was a Codfish two feet in length. The Cod's 
stomach contained the bodies of two Whitings of ordi- 
nary size ; and the Whitings, in their turn, held the half- 
digested remains of many smaller fishes too much broken 
up to be identified." 

360. The mouth of each fish is adapted to its mode of 
gaining a livelihood. Some species have no teeth, but in 
most fishes there are several rows of them. They are 
commonly not confined to the jaws, but are also on the 
tongue, the palate, etc. Most have teeth merely for hold- 
ing the food and passing it into the throat, while in oth- 
ers there are teeth for cutting or tearing ; and in such as 
live on shell-fish there are teeth for crushing. 



214 NATURAL HISTOKY, 

361. Fishes surpass any other class of Vertebrates 
both in actual number and in the number of genera and 
species. Seven tenths of the earth's surface is covered 
Avith water, leaving out of view the lakes and rivers. 
Now in the seas and oceans occupying this immense 
space Fishes are found, some in shallow Avaters, some out 
at sea near the surface, and others at various depths, 
some even to the depth of several hundred feet. There 
are different ranges of depth to which different species 
are fitted. It is among those whose range does not ex- 
tend much below the surface that we have a display of 
bright and various colors, equaling, often, that of the 
Bird and Insect tribes ; while those that frequent the 
depths are of a dull color. This difference is owing most- 
ly to the influence of light. At what depth there is a 
total absence of light, and therefore, probably, of life, has 
not been ascertained. 

Questions. — How do the Fishes differ from all other vertebrated an- 
imals ? What is said of the necessity for breathing to a fish ? How 
may a fish be drowned ? What is the difference between lungs and 
gills ? How are gills constructed and arranged ? Why does a fish die 
when out of water ? Why can some live a considerable time in air ? 
What is the plan of the circulation of fishes ? Why is it best that they 
should be cold-blooded ? What is said of the shape of a fish ? Why 
has it no neck ? What is said of its covering ? How is the motion 
of fishes contrasted with that of birds ? What is said of the Flying 
Fish ? How do fishes use their air-bladder ? What is said of the use 
of the tail and of the fins in swimming ? What is said of the skele- 
tons of fishes ? How is the Fish adapted in its nervous system and its 
senses to its mode of life ? What organs of touch do we see in some 
fishes ? What is said of the organs of vision in fishes ? What of their 
sense of smell? What is said of their food? Give the statement of 
Dr. Houston. What is said of the mouths of fishes ? How do fishes 
compare with other vertebrates in number and variety? What is 
said of the various depths in which they live ? What influence has 
this on their color ? 



FISHES. 215 



CHAPTER XXI. 

FISHES — continued, 

362. Some fishes are fitted to live in fresh water, and 
some in salt, while others can Uve in both equally well. 
Some remain in one place, but others are wandering ; and 
some make long periodical journeys or migrations. At 
the time for spawning or laying their eggs, fishes in the 
sea generally either approach the coasts or go up the 
rivers. The Herrings are an example of the former, and 
the Shad and Salmon of the latter. In these migrations 
the Salmon observe regular order, as the wild geese do 
in theirs. They form two long files, united together in 
front, and led by the largest female in the troop. The 
males form the rear guard. When any obstacle opposes, 
they leap over it, sometimes to the height of ten or even 
sixteen feet. In this way they ascend rivers nearly to 
their sources, and deposit their eggs in the autumn in 
holes which they dig in the sand. Remaining here 
through the winter, in the early spring they return to 
the sea. It seems that the Salmon haye the same instinct 
that some birds have in regard to place, § 212. This 
was proved by a naturalist named Deslandes in this way. 
He placed a ring of copper on twelve of these fish, and 
set them at liberty in the River Auzou, in Brittany. 
They, of course, emigrated, but the next year five of them 
were caught in the same place, the second year three, 
and the year after three more. 

363. Most fishes are abundantly prolific. You can see 
this to be so if you observe the roe or spawn of any fish, 
this being the collection of the eggs of the animal. It is 
estimated that at least 60,000 eggs are' contained in the 
roe of a Herring. The roe of a Codfish was ascertained 



216 NATURAI. HISTOKY. 

to contain nine million of eggs. Fishes being thus pro- 
lific, societies of them, or shoals, as they are called, are 
often immense in multitude. They would be too abund- 
ant were their number not kept down by various causes. 
Many of the eggs are destroyed, and then of the young 
fish so many are eaten by other fish, and are killed in va- 
rious ways, that few of them comparatively come to ma- 
turity. 

364. Some fishes present a strong contrast to all this 
in the number of their young. This is the case with that 
rapacious fish, the Shark, thus illustrating the Divine wis- 
dom and benevolence. It produces but two eggs. The 
eggs of some species of the Sharks are great curiosities. 
They are of firm texture, and of a purse-like shape, with a 
long tendril extending from each corner of it, as seen in 
Fig. 168. These tendrils, coiling around seaweed or any 



Fig. 168.— Egg of Shark. 

other substance, serve to anchor the egg securely. The 
purse is thin at the end where the head of the young fish 
is, and when it is in a fit state to come out, it breaks its 
way through this end. Some other fishes lay similar 
eggs. ^ They are sometimes picked up by the sea-shore, 
and are called Mermaids' Purses. 

365. Fishes supply quite a large portion of the food of 
the human family. An immense amount of capital is 
employed in carrying on the fisheries, and in some quar- 
ters a large part of the population are engaged in them. 



FISHES. 



217 



It was estimated at one time that one fifth of the popu- 
lation of Holland were devoted to this branch of indus- 
try alone. 

366. There have been various systems of classification 
proposed for the Fishes. Cuvier first divides them into 
those that have really bony skeletons, and those that 
have cartilaginous ones. He then divides the Osseous or 
bony fishes into two groups according to their fins, the 
first being spine-rayed, the second soft-rayed. The Car- 
tilaginous fishes he divides into two groups according to 
the arrangement of their gills, the fringes being free in 
the one, and being fixed in the other. Professor Agassiz 
classifies fishes according to the character of their scales, 
making four orders. 

367. It would take us into too broad a field to go into 
the minute classification of fishes. I shall, therefore, in 
addition to what has already been presented, notice par- 
ticularly only a few of the most interesting of these 
animals. 

368. The Swordfish, Fig. 169, is found in every part 




Fig. 169.— The Swordfish. 

of the Mediterranean Sea. Its " sword" is an elongation 
of the upper jaw, of great strength. It uses it in trans- 
fixing its prey, running into shoals of fishes for this pur- 
pose. In the British Museum there is a piece of the 
bottom of a ship with a " sword" thrust entirely through 
it. The length of this fish is from twelve to fifteen feet. 
Another fish of about the same size has a similar projec- 

K 



218 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



tion from the upper jaw, but notched on both sides, and 
hence it is called the Sawfish. With this instrument it 
sometimes attacks the Whale, inflicting severe wounds 
on him, and sometimes imbedding the saw in his body 
in its full length. 

369. The John Dory, Fig. 170, is a singular fish in its 




Fig. ITO The John Dory. 

shape, its markings, and its appendages. In England 
its fame is associated with the performances of Quin the 
comedian. There are various traditions of a curious na- 
ture in regard to the round spots on its sides. One is, 
that this is the fish that St. Peter caught, and that in 
taking the tribute-money out of its mouth he made these 
marks with his finger and thumb. The name of this 

fish is probably a cor- 
ruption of the French 
jaune dore — golden 
yellow, the color of 
the lighter parts of 
the fish when it is 
alive. 
370. The Seahorse, 
Fig. i7i.-The Seahorse. Fig. I7l, has been 




FISHES. 219 

often found off the coasts of England. It is the only fish 
that is as yet known to have a prehensile tail. It has 
been found in the Hudson River of this country, about 
five or six inches in length. 

371. The Lophius, or Fishing Frog, Fig. 172, appears 




Fig. 172.— The Lophius, or Fishing Frog. 

on all the European coasts, and also on our own. With 
its pectoral fins it can crawl on land. The voracity of 
this fish is very great, and if caught in a net with other 
fish it will devour some of its fellow-prisoners. Its usual 
mode of capturing its prey is this. Crouching close to 
the bottom, and stirring up the mud and sand, it moves 
about the long filaments ; the small fishes, swimming 
about, suppose these filaments to be worms, and as they 
are about to seize them, the Angler, with a quick move- 
ment, takes them into his capacious jaws. 

372. The Sturgeon, Fig. 173 (p. 220), although one 
of the cartilaginous fishes, has externally rows of bony 
plates. It is very common in the northern parts of Eu- 
rope, where there are regular fisheries for its capture. 
Almost every part of it is used — isinglass being obtained 
from its air-bladder, and caviar from the roe, while the 
flesh is consumed both in a fresh and a salted state. It 
is much esteemed as food, eaten fresh, in the Atlantic 



220 



NATURAL HISTOEY. 




173. —The Sturgeon. 



Southern States of this country. The female deposits 
her eggs in the fresh water of rivers, and the young, 
when hatched, migrate to the sea. 

373. The family of Flat Fish differ in some important 
respects not only from all other fishes, but from all other 
A^ertebrated animals. The Turbot, Fig. 174, is an ex- 




Fig. 114— The Turbot. 

ample of it. These fishes are not ordinarily in the posi- 
tion that you see here, but lie flat along near the bottom, 
the upper surface in most species being of a dark color, 
while the lower surface is white. They have no air- 
bladder, and have little power of rising in the water. 
When they are disturbed they assume a vertical position, 
showing their v/hite sides, and dart along with great 



FISHES. 221 

rapidity. Some are occasionally met vdth in which the 
sides are alike in color, most often dark, but sometimes 
white, and these are said to be " doubles." The fishes 
of this family differ from all other Vertebrates in a lack 
of perfect symmetry in relation to the two halves of the 
body. In all other Vertebrates the two halves are alike, 
except in some of the internal organs. But in these 
fishes there is a difference between the two sides in sev- 
eral particulars. The two eyes are on one side, and are 
irregularly placed ; in some species they are on the right 
side, and in others on the left. With this there is an 
irregularity in the bones of the head, while in all other 
Vertebrates they are alike on the two sides. Then there 
is the difference in color. There is also a difference in 
the pectoral fins, one being longer than the other. 

374. Most of the species of this family belong exclu- 
sively to the sea, and yet the Flounder and some others 
occasionally ascend rivers. The Halibut, so w^ell-known 
in this country, is a very large fish, sometimes six or 
seven feet long, and weighing four or five hundred 
pounds. The flesh of the Turbot is considered peculiar- 
ly fine, and immense quantities are taken in the fisher- 
ies. Carpenter states that the Dutch receive £80,000 per 
annum for the supply of this fish to the London market. 

375. The Herring family furnish a great amount of 
food to man. They are mostly marine fishes ; only a few 
species, among which is the Shad, ascending the rivers 
at the spawning season. The common Shad of this coun- 
try has a much better flavor than the Shad of Europe. 
The Sardine and Anchovy are aberrant species of this 
family. The true Herring inhabits the northern seas, 
and arrives every year in vast legions on the coasts of 
America, Europe, and Asia, never descending below the 
45th degree of north latitude. They come to the coast 
to spawn, and then retire to the depths of the sea, going 
northw^ard. 

376. The Eels are called Apoda, or Footless Fish, be- 



222 NATURAI. HISTORY. 

cause they have no ventral or belly fins. They have 
long, snake -like bodies, covered with a soft skin, the 
scales being very minute, often almost invisible. They 
can live for some time out of the water, chiefly from a 
pecuHar arrangement of the gills. The gills have very 
narrow openings, and are, therefore, so much sheltered 
from the air that they do not readily become unfit for res- 
piration in becoming dry (§ 350). There is a similar ar- 
rangement in the Lampreys, a class of Fishes of eel-like 
shape, in some respects the lowest in organization of all 
the Vertebrate animals. In these fishes there are four- 
teen gill-openings, seven on each side, as seen in Fig. 175. 



Fig. 175. — Lamprey. 

They are sometimes called Seven-eyes on this account. 
The mouth is a singular apparatus. It is ring-shaped, 
and is armed with numerous teeth, and there are also 
two longitudinal rows of small teeth on the tongue. The 
tongue moves backward and forward in the mouth, act- 
ing as a piston, thus, by its suction power, enabling the 
fish to hold on to any object that it pleases. 

377. In the rivers and ponds of Surinam and other 
parts of South America there is found an Eel which is 
armed with a true electric battery. It uses it in destroy- 
ing the life of its prey, which it does instantaneously. It 
can sometimes give a shock powerful enough to prostrate 
a man. Humboldt describes the method adopted by the 
natives in taking these animals. Having found a pool in 
which they are, they drive in a troop of wild horses. Aft- 



FISHES. 223 

er the electricity accumulated in their batteries is pretty- 
much expended on the horses — some of them, perhaps, 
being killed by it — the Eels are captured with impunity. 
378. There is an aberrant genus of the Ray family 
which has a similar apparatus, the situation of which is 
seen in Fig. 176, in the two elevations extending from the 




Fig. 17G.— Torpedo. 

eyes about half way down the body. This fish is found 
chiefly in the Mediterranean, where its powers are well 
known and are much feared. The apparatus is represent- 
ed in Fig. 177 (p. 224), the batteries on each side being 
at e. On one side is seen the nerve, w^hich, branching out 
from the brain, c, to the battery, is the means by which 
the animal can work it at pleasure. The batteries are 
composed of multitudes of tubes pressed one against an- 
other like the cells of a honeycomb, and filled with a 
thick fluid. The true Rays have on the tail and other 
parts barbs or prickles with which they can inflict wounds. 
They are shaped much like the Flatfish (§ 373). But in 
their case the upper side is really the back and the under 
side is the belly ; and they are symmetrical, having the 
eyes on the upper side, and the mouth, nostrils, and gill- 



224 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



openings beneath. 
Like the Flatfish, they 
move along in search 
of their prey near the 
bottom. Some species 
reach a large size, the 
Eagle Rays having 
been seen twenty-five 
feet long and thirty 
broad. It is stated 
that one was taken at 
Barbadoes which 
weighed 3500 pounds, 
and that it required 
seven yoke of oxen to 
draAV it ashore. 

Questions. — What is said 
of the distinction between 
salt-water and fresh-water 
Fishes? What is said of 
the migration of Fishes? 
What of the migration of 
the Salmon ? Give the ob- 
servation of Deslandes. 
What is said of their fe- 
cundity? What is said of the Sharks in this respect? Describe the 
eggs of some Sharks. What is said of Fishes as supplying man with 
food ? What is said of the classification of Fishes ? What is said 
of the Swordfish? Of the John Dory? Of the Seahorse? Of the 
Lophius ? Of the Sturgeon ? What are the characteristics of the 
Flatfishes? How do they differ from all other Vertebrates? In 
what water are most species found ? What is said of the Halibut ? 
What are some of the fishes of the Herring family? What is said 
of the true Herrings ? Why are Eels called Apoda ? What is said 
of their scales ? What of their gills ? What of the gills of the Lam- 
preys ? What of their mouth ? What is said of the Electrical Eel ? 
Describe the arrangement of the electrical apparatus of the Torpedo. 
What is said of the true Rays ? Give the comparison with the Flat- 
fish. What is said of the size of the Rays ? 




Fig. ITT. — Electric Apparatus of Torpedo. 



INSECTS. 225 



CHAPTER XXII. 

INSECTS. 

379. The sub-kingdom which we have already consid- 
ered is the Vertebrate. The other three sub-kingdoms 
are said to be Invertebrate, the prefix in being here used 
as meaning the same as the very common negative prefix 
itn. Of these sub-kingdoms I will notice the Articulata 
first. The two chief characteristics of it were stated in 
Chapter I. These, however, and other characteristics, 
require a more particular notice here, before I enter on 
the consideration of Insects, the special subject of this 
chapter. 

380. The kingdom of the Articulates includes a wide 
range of animals of great variety — Insects, Worms, the 
Spider and Scorpion tribe, and the Crab tribe. But they 
all agree in one thing — in having a covering Avhich an- 
swers the purpose of the internal skeleton of the Verte- 
brates. This covering, or jointed armor, gives firmness 
to the body, and furnishes points of attachment to the 
muscles. 

381. This skeleton coat of mail is very commonly ar- 
ranged on the bodies of these animals in segments in the 
form of rings. This arrangement is seen most perfectly 
carried out in the Centipede, Fig. 178 (p. 226). You can 
also see it i^lainly in the bodies of most insects, as, for ex- 
ample, in the common Fly. This arrangement mostly 
disappears in the Crab tribe, where, for the sake of firm- 
ness, the skeleton covering the body of the animal is in 
one piece. So, also, on the other hand, it nearly disap- 
pears in such soft Articulates as the Leech and Earth- 
worm, because there the rings would not allow the requi- 
site limberness. 

K2 



226 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 



382. I have spoken in § 15 of the gangUa 
of the nervous system of the Articulates. 
Commonly there is a chain of them, as seen in 
Fig. 8. But sometimes, as in some of the 
Crab tribe, there are only two, one in the head 
and the other in the thorax. This is a de- 
cided approach toward the arrangement of 
the nervous system of the Vertebrates, the 
upper ganglion being somewhat like a true 
brain. 

383. The muscles constitute the bulk of 
the body in the Articulates ; and, being thus 
muscular, they are very active. For this pur- 
pose the armor-skeleton is made as light as 
possible consistently with the requisite firm- 
ness. The movements of some of them ex- 
ceed in rapidity those of any other animals. 
With the exception of one group, they roam 
freely in search of their food, and have very 
effective organs for capturing their prey. 
Their apparatus for mastication, also, is com- 
monly complicated and powerful. 

384. Almost all of the Articulata have a distinct head. 
The jaws do not move up and down as in the Verte- 
brates, but sidewise. There are often several pairs of 
them, sometimes having cutting edges, sometimes edges 
Avith saw-hke teeth, and sometimes they are fitted to 
crush rather than to cut or tear. The legs are gener- 
ally six, eight, ten, or fourteen in number, but some- 
times there are many hundreds. Sometimes there are 
none ; but when they exist at all, they are never less than 
six. 

385. The circulation of the Articulates is peculiar. 
There is no heart, but instead there is a tube stretching 
along the back. This is not perfectly regular, but has 
segments corresponding with the segments of the body 
mentioned in § 381, Each segment is a sort of heart for 



-Oen- 



INSECTS. 227 

its division of the body. The blood is for the most part 
white. 

386. The respiration differs in the different classes. In 
the Crustacea, the class to which the Lobsters and Crabs 
belong, the respiratory organs are, like those of the Fish- 
es, fitted for the action of air mmgled with water. They 
are really gills in various forms. But in the Insects and 
Spiders the respiration is aerial ; that is, the respiratory 
organs are fitted for the action of air alone by itself. 

387. The symmetry of the body is even more complete 
in the Articulates than it is in the Vertebrates. In the 
latter there are many of the internal organs in regard to 
which the two halves of the body are not alike, as the 
heart, stomach, lungs, etc. But in the Articulates this 
symmetry is extended even to some of these internal 
organs. 

388. The Articulata are commonly divided into seven 
classes. 1. Insects. These have the three divisions of 
the body, the head, the thorax or chest, and the abdo- 
men. They have antenna? or feelers on the head, three 
pairs of legs, and generally one or two pairs of wings. 
2. Myriapoda, the Centipedes. They have no separation 
of the body into thorax and abdomen. The head, how- 
ever, is very distinct. There are seldom less than twen- 
ty-four pairs of legs. The segments of the body are nu- 
merous and equal. 3. Arachnida, including the Spiders, 
Scorpions, and Mites, are characterized by the union of 
the head and thorax, by the very distinct separation of 
this cephalo-thorax from the abdomen, by the possession 
of four pairs of legs, and by their want of antennae. In 
all these three classes the respiration is aerial. 4. Crus- 
tacea, or Crabs, Lobsters, etc. The respiration is aquatic, 
like that of Fishes. They have from five to seven pairs 
of legs. The body is variously divided. In some the 
three parts are distinct, as in Insects ; in others the ar- 
rangement is like that of the Arachnida ; and in others 
still it is like that of the Myriapoda. The classes already 



228 NATURAL HISTOKY. 

mentioned have articulated members. The remaining 
three have none. 5. The Annehda, the Leech and Worm 
tribe, having the segments very indistinct. 6. Entozoa, 
Intestinal Worms, in which the articulated arrangement 
is still more indistinct than in the Annelida. 7. Rotifera, 
or Wheel Animalcules, very minute animals, presenting 
the articulated character quite indistinctly. 

389. I now pass to the consideration of Insects. This 
class of the Articulata has an immense number of dis- 
tinct species, surpassing in this respect every other de- 
partment of the animal kingdom. Dr. Carpenter esti- 
mates the sub-kingdom of Vertebrates as containing 
30,000 sjDCcies, a number which is exceeded by one sin- 
gle order of the Insect tribe, the Beetles. And numer- 
ous as are the known species of Insects, it is supposed 
that the number of those which remain to be discovered 
is far greater. 

390. The name Insect comes from the Latin word in- 
seco^ to cut into, and refers to the divisions or sections 
of the animal's body. The intervals between them are 
so abrupt that they appear as if made by a cutting opera- 
tion. The sections or segments are usually thirteen or 
fourteen in number. One is the head; the chest or 
thorax has three ; and the abdomen nine. 

391. The respiration of Insects is peculiar. They have 
no lungs in one particular part of the body. Their lungs 
may be said to be in all quarters of the body, for air is 
admitted by various openings into tubes which traverse 
here and there. It is thus that the blood of the insect is 
acted upon by the air. These openings are generally 
mere slits Hke button-holes; but often they have two 
valves w^hich open and shut like folding doors, and some- 
times they have over them a sort of fine grating to keep 
dust from entering. As Insects are exceedingly active, 
they require comparatively a large amount of air. They 
are strikingly in contrast with Reptiles in this respect. 
These latter are so dull and slow that they need but lit- 



INSECTS. 229 

tie air ; and when they go to sleep for the winter they 
require none, and their breathing stops. 

392. Some insects hve on the juices of plants and of 
animals, and some devour the substance of either the 
one or the other. The former suck their food ; the lat- 
ter gnaw it. These two classes, therefore, have two dif- 
ferent kinds of mouths. The gnawers, such as Beetles, 
Cockroaches, Locusts, etc., have a complicated apparatus, 
which I will describe. First, there are two tooth or 
claw-like appendages, called mandibles; these are the 
upper jaws, which divide the food. They come together 
by a lateral or sidewise motion. Sometimes they have 
sharp edges to cut like scissors, and sometimes they have 
points for tearing. Below or behind these are two other 
jaws, called maxillm^ which are very complex in their 
structure. Above, or, rather, in front of the mandibles, 
is a lip, and so there is one behind the maxilla). Insects 
furnished with an apparatus of this kind are called man- 
dibulate, 

393. In some insects we have an arrangement entirely 
of a different character, as in the Butterfly tribe. Here 
there is a tubular appendage, or trunk, often quite long. 

This is ordinarily coiled up, as you see 
in Fig. 1 79. When the animal wishes, 
it can uncoil it and extend it down 
into the bosom of flowers. Such in- 
sects are called Haustellate, from 
haiistellum^ a sucker. This tube, or 
Fig. 179. proboscis, varies much in different in- 

sects. In some, as the Bees, there is a mixture of the 
mandibulate and the haustellate arrangements. They 
obtain their food by suction, and use their mandibles 
and maxillse as trowels and spades, and knives and scis- 
sors, in building their curious habitations. In insects 
that suck the blood of animals, such as the Musquito 
and the Horsefly, there is a peculiar modification of the 
apparatus. There is a proboscis with lancets to make 




230 



JSTATUKAL HISTORY. 



the necessary wound in the skin of the animal whose 
blood is to be sucked. 

394. The head of the insect is furnished with certain 
appendages called antenncB^ supposed to be organs of 
feeling, and perhaps of hearing also. They are various 
in form, and commonly very beautiful, especially when 
examined with the microscope. In Fig. 180 you have 




Fig. ISO. — Variously-formed Antennae of Insects. 

a variety of them represented. There are other feelers 
called palpi^ which are usually much smaller and shorter. 
The antennae probably act as feelers in regard to objects 
a little distance off, while the palpi do the same for sub- 
stances close by the mouth of the animal. 

395. The senses of Insects are all acute; and yet the 
organ of smell has never been discovered, and in most 
no organ of hearing can be found. The organs of vision 
are generally plain to be seen, and are often exceedingly 
prominent objects as we look at the insect. Very com- 
monly the eye is a multitude of small eyes. In the com- 
mon house Fly there are 4000 of them, and some insects 




Fig. 181.— Head and Eyes of the Bee, showing the Division into Facets. 



INSECTS. 



231 



have 25,000. If examined Avith a microscope, the sur- 
face of these compound eyes appears as you see in Fig. 
181 (p. 230), representing the head and eyes of a bee. 
At a are the antennae, and the eyes occupy most of the 
front and sides of the head. The surface is made up of 
hexagonal (six-sided) facets. At A you see them much 
magnified, and at B you see hairs standing out between 
them. Each of these facets is a cornea, or window to a 
little eye. (See "First Book in Physiology," p. 167.) 
Most insects have these compound eyes, but some have 
only single ones, and some have both, for what reason 
we do not know. 

396. The digestive apparatus is commonly quite com- 
plicated, there being three 
stomachs — one correspond- 
ing to the crop of birds, an- 
other to the gizzard, while a 
third receives the food and 
digests it after it has been 
softened and ground in the 
other two stomachs. The 
second stomach, or gizzard, 
is often armed with horny 
projections, in order to grind 
up the food effectually. In 
Fig. 182 you have the whole 
digestive apparatus of a 
Beetle. First you see the 
strong cutting mandibles, 
the maxillae and the anten- 
nae ; then a the throat, h the 
gullet, c the crop, d the giz- 
zard, e the third stomach, 
/the intestine. The liver, A, 
instead of being such a solid 
organ as it is in vertebrate 
and most other animals, is 




Fig. 182, 



-Digestive Apparatus of 
r»eetle. 



232 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



made up of long and delicate tubes. As lightness is a 
great object in the structure of the Insect, the digestive 
apparatus is made of as little bulk as possible. 

397. The feet of Insects are in conformity Avith their 
modes of life. Some have claws or hooks ; some have 
a kind of suction cushion by which they can adhere to 
surfaces; some have fringed feet to enable them to 
sw^im ; and some have their fore feet shaped for digging, 
like the Mole's. 

398. The wings are generally made very much like 
those of the Bat, § 58. They consist of a double mem- 
brane over an extended slender frame-work. There are 
generally two pairs, but sometimes only one, as in the 
case of the common Fly. Often the first pair of wings 
are mere coverings for the other wings, and have no act- 
ive agency in flight. In this case they are made thick 

and firm, and are called the 
elytra (singular elytrum). In 
Fig. 183 you see the elytra 
at a. When the Insect is at 
rest, the elytra are brought 
together over the back, the 
true wings being folded, some- 
^>^ times very curiously, under 
them. The true wings are 
light and thin, and they are 
transparent, except when they 
are covered with what ap- 
pears to the naked eye as a 
kind of colored dust, as is the case with the Moths and 
Butterflies. This dust, examined with the microscope, is 
found to be made up of little regularly-formed scales, 
often beautifully marked with lines. When they are 
rubbed off", their fastenings look, under the microscope, 
like the nail-heads on a roof when old shingles have been 
torn off. In some of the Butterflies the scales are ar- 
ranged like shingles on a roof, and with their various 
colors present a very beautifiil appearance. 




Fig. 183. 



INSECTS. 233 

399. There is no part of the animal world that exhib- 
its so great a variety of beauty in both color and struc- 
ture as the Insect tribe. And it is especially true of 
these animals, that, great as is the beauty visible to the 
naked eye, still greater is that which the microscope re- 
veals. 

400. With very few exceptions Insects are oviparous. 
In many cases the eggs are laid in autumn, and are hatch- 
ed in the spring. Insects that do this, instinctively make 
special provision for the preservation of the eggs through 
the winter. When the eggs are of a tender consistence, 
the Insects deposit them deeply in the earth. But some 
are deposited on trees. In this case leaves are not se- 
lected as the place of deposit, as is very commonly done 
when the eggs are to be soon hatched ; for if this were 
done, the leaves being scattered by the wind, the Insects, 
when they came to be hatched, might be far away from 
their appropriate food. Accordingly, the parent de- 
posits the eggs on the trunks or branches of the trees, 
upon w^hose young leaves their progeny can live when 
the warmth of spring hatches them. Moreover, eggs 
thus exposed to the cold of winter have not the usual 
delicate covering of those which are hatched the same 
season in which they are laid, or of those Avhich are de- 
posited in the earth for the winter. They are covered 
with a hard, thick shell ; and, besides, they are well pack- 
ed together, and the interstices are filled up with a tena- 
cious substance which becomes veiy hard. The arrange- 
ment of these little eggs is often very beautiful. They 
are of very great variety of shape, and some of them are 
curiously and elaborately constructed. In Fig. 184 (p. 
234) you have a few of these varieties represented. 

401. Insects are commonly exceedingly prolific. The 
queen of the Honey Bees lays fifty thousand eggs, and 
the female White Ant produces forty or fifty millions in 
a year. It is calculated that the progeny of a single 
Aphis or Plant Louse number in one season a trillion, 



234 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. ISi.— Magnified Eggs of various Insects. 

that is, 1,000,000,000,000,000,000. But they are so feebly 
constructed that a large portion of them are destroyed 
in one way and another before they come to maturity. 
Insects are distributed largely over all parts of the globe, 
appearing even in the arctic regions during their short 
summers. They are the most abundant in the tropical 
regions, and there the largest and most brilliant species 
are found. Each region has Insects peculiar to itself. 
Some, however, are very widely distributed, the com- 
mon House Fly the most widely of all. 



Questions. — "What is the meaning of the term Invertebrate ? What 
are inchided in the sub-kingdom of the Articulata ? In what are they 
alike ? What is said of the arrangement of the skeleton-covering of 
the Articulata ? What is said of their nervous system ? What of 
their muscles? What of their jaws? What of their circulation? 
What of their respiratory organs ? How do they differ from the Ver- 
tebrates in symmetry ? Give the classes of the Articulata, with their 
characteristics. What is said of the number of Insects ? Show the 
appropriateness of the name Insect. Describe the respiratory appa- 
ratus of Insects. What do Insects live on ? Describe the mandibu- 
late apparatus. Describe the haustellate apparatus. What are some 
of its variations ? What is said of the antennae ? What of the palpi ? 
What is said of the senses of Insects ? Describe the arrangement of 
the eyes of a Bee. What is said of the digestive organs of Insects ? 



THE METAMORPHOSIS OF II!^SECTS. 235 

Describe the digestive apparatus of a Beetle. How are the wings of 
Insects constructed ? What are elytra ? What is there peculiar in 
the wings of Moths and Butterflies ? What is said of the beauties of 
Insects ? What various provisions are macTe for preserving and hatch- 
ing the eggs of Insects ? What is said of their shapes ? What is said 
of the fecundity of Insects ? What of their distribution ? 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 

402. The grand peculiarity of Insects is theii' metamor- 
phosis, or change of form. Almost every Insect under- 
goes this change, there being commonly three distinct 
changes of being. In the first stage the Insect is a crawl- 
ing caterpillar or a worm. In its second stage it is wrap- 
ped up in a covering prepared for the purpose, and is in 
a state of sleep. During this sleej) great changes are 
going on. When these are completed it is a winged an- 
imal, its wings being closely folded up. In due time it 
comes out of its prison, and spreads its wrings for flight. 
It is now deemed to have arrived at its perfect condi- 
tion. 

403. In its first stage it is called a JLarva^ this being 
the Latin word for mask, the idea being that the Insect 
is now not in its true state or character, but is in a mask- 
ed condition, from which it will after a while come out. 
When it does so, it is called the Imago^ or said to be in 
the imago state. The Insect is now the image or repre- 
sentative in full of its species. Its sleeping state, the 
one intermediate between the larva state and the imago 
state, is a transition one. In this the Insect is changing 
from a crawling to a flying animal. It is now termed 
a Pupa^ the Latin for baby, because it commonly appears 
somewhat like an infant trussed up with bandages, as has 
sometimes been the fashion in some nations. The or- 



236 NATURAL HISTOKY. 

dinary forms and appearance of PupaB (plural of Pupa) 
are represented in Fig. 185. 




3 

Fig. 1S5 ct, Pupa of a Water-beetle iHydrophilus) ; b, Pupa of Sphinx Ligustri, 

404. The different larvae of Insects have the different 
names of maggot, grub, and caterpillar, according to 
their form and appearance. The pupae of Butterflies and 
Moths were formerly called Chrysalids and Aurelias, be- 
cause the coverings of some of them have spots of a 
golden hue. The term Chrysalis is often used at the 
present day as synonymous with pupa, and this state of 
the Insect is called the Chrysalid state. 

405. The changes w^hich take place in the pupa state 
are very great, even radical ones. There is commonly 
no resemblance between the Larva and its Imago. There 
may be great beauty in the Imago, and none in the Lar- 
va, and sometimes the reverse is the case. Then, as to 
form and general structure, the contrast is of the most 
marked character. In the Larva state it was a slow, 
crawling animal, but in the Imago state it is light, per- 
haps delicate in structure, and is nimble on the wing. 
And the change is as great internally as it is externally. 
Its stomach even is changed, for its mode of getting a 
livelihood is different now. There are corresponding 
changes also about the mouth, a coiled tongue perhaps 
appearing in place of the formidable gnawing apparatus 
of the larva. In relation to this chani^e it has been well 



THE METAMOEPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 237 

said, " "Were a naturalist to announce to the world the 
discovery of an animal which for the fii'st five years of 
its life existed in the form of a serpent ; which then, pene- 
trating into the earth, and wearing a shroud of pure silk 
of the finest texture, contracted itself within this cover- 
ing into a body without external mouth or limbs, and re- 
sembhng more than any thing else an Egyptian mummy ; 
and which, lastly, after remaining in this state for three 
years longer, should, at the end of that period, burst its 
cerements, struggle through its earthy covering, and 
start into day a winged bird, w^hat would be the sensa- 
tion excited by this piece of mtelligence ?" And yet this 
would be no more wonderful than the ordinary metamor- 
phosis of Insects. Indeed, many of the most marvelous 
circumstances in this change are not at all referred to in 
the supposition above made. 

406. The larva is produced from an egg, and the egg 
is laid by the perfect Insect or Imago. When the larva 
is first hatched it is very small, but it grows with a ra- 
pidity always great, in some cases enormous. The mag- 
gots of flesh Flies are said to increase in weight two 
hundred times in twenty-four hours. To make such an 
increase these animals must eat voraciously. With the 
great multiplication of their number, the amount which 
a collection of them will sometimes devour is wonderful. 
Linngeus calculated that three flesh Flies and their imme- 
diate progeny vrould eat up the carcass of a horse sooner 
than a lion would do it. 

407. In the Imago state the Insect eats but little, as it 
# grows little or none ordinarily. The Butterfly or Moth 

comes forth from its prison fully grown ; but the cater- 
pillar from which it was formed was very small at the 
outset, and became large by large eating. Our common 
Flies are small and delicate eaters, but the Maggots, the 
larv86 from which they came, rioting in filth, devour 
largely what the Flies will not touch. 

408. The great grovv^th of larvae obliges them to cast 



238 NATURAL HISTORY. 

their skins repeatedly. The Silkworm and other cater- 
pillars cast their skins about four times during their 
growth. 

409. Insects pass the time of their pupa state under 
various circumstances. Some, when about going into 
this state, crawl into some by-place away from intruders. 
Some work their way into the ground, and perhaps spin 
a silken hning for the earth-cells in which they are to 
sleep through their change. Some roll themselves up in 
leaves. Some construct for themselves a silken house, 
called a cocoon, attached to some leaf or twig. 

410. Among those that do this last is the Silkworm. 
The formation of the cocoon I will describe. When the 
worm has its silk factory, w^hich is near its mouth, prop- 
erly stocked with the gummy pulp from which the silk 
is to be spun, it seeks a good place where it can have a 
sort of scaffolding for its cocoon. It first spins some 
loose floss, attaching it to things around. Next it be- 
gins to wind its silk round and round, making a cocoon 
at length, shaped much like a pigeon's egg^ being smaller 
at one end than the other. It thus gradually shuts itself 
up in a silken prison. The last of the silk which it spins 
is the most delicate of all, and it is well glued together, 
making a very smooth surface next to the Silkworm's 
body. The sill^en house being constructed, it now pre- 
pares itself for its sleep and its change. It sheds its skin 
now for the fourth and last time, tucking its old clothes, 
as we may say, very snugly at one end of the cocoon. It 
then passes into its sleep, and a new and thin skin is 
formed over it, in which it gradually changes into an an-« 
imal endowed with wings. At the proper time it works 
its way out of its prison, unfolds its wings, and flies off, 
not to eat mulberry leaves, as it did in its larva state, but 
to sip the l»oney from the flowers. 

411. Observe the manner of its exit and the arrange- 
ments for it. The head is always at the small end of the 
cocoon, and here the silk is less closely wound and less 



THE METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 239 

tightly cemented by the gluey substance. The old clothes 
are always at the other end, so as not to be in the way. 
The new coat w^hich was formed as it entered the pupa 
state is easily torn, and the Moth, moistening the cocoon 
with a fluid from its mouth at the part where it is to es- 
cape, easily forces its way through. The opening from 
w^hich it emerges is very small, and the shape of the an- 
imal before it expands its wings is that of a long bundle. 

412. The thread with which the worm makes its co- 
coon is an unbroken one. It can, therefore, be unwound 
or reeled ofl', which is done in obtaining it for manufac- 
ture. For this purpose the cocoons are exposed to the 
heat of an oven in order to kill the pupge in them, and 
then, by a little soaking in W'arm water, the glutinous 
matter w^hicli unites the silk is so softened that the thread 
can be readily unwound. The length of it varies from six 
hundred to a thousand feet ; and as it is double as spun 
out by the insect, its real length is nearly two thousand 
feet. So fine is this double thread, that the silk that 
comes from one cocoon does not weigh above three 
and a half grains, and it requires ten thousand cocoons 
to supply five pounds of silk. The native countries of 
the Silkworm are China and the East Indies ; and in an- 
cient times the manufacture of silk was confined to them. 
So scarce was the article in other countries, even as late 
as James I. of England, that this monarch, before his 
accession to the throne, w^ore on some public occasion a 
borrowed pair of silk stockings. But at the present 
time the culture of the Silkworm and the manufacture 
of silk are so widely diffused, that silk is every where, 
in civilized communities, one of the common articles of 
dress. 

413. When a pupa is to remain out of doors all the 
winter, special pains are taken to guard it against the 
cold. For this purpose great numbers of Insects in the 
autumn dig their way down into the ground, and pass 
their pupa state in an earthy cell below the reach of 



^40 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




THE METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 



241 



frost. Some line this cell with silk, making thus a soft 
covering for the body, and shutting out more effectually 
the cold. Some of the caterpillars accomplish the same 
object by constructing above ground a cocoon specially 
adapted to guard against the cold. This is exemplified 
in the case of one of the largest and most splendid of 

our American Moths 
— the Cecropia Moth, 
Fig. 186 (p. 240). It 
is found, as Professor 
Jaeger states, all the 
way from the Canadas 
to the Mexican Gulf, 
and also in all the West- 
ern States. It has large 
wings, measuring five 
to six inches from tip 
to tip. The scales on 
them, § 397, are dusky 
brown. The borders 
of the wings are richly 
variegated, the anterior 
ones having near their 
tops a dark spot re- 
sembUng an eye, and 
both pairs having kid- 
ney-shaped red spots. 

414. In this case the 
caterpillar, or larva. 
Fig. 187, is nearly as 
beautiful in colors as 
the perfect insect or 
imago. It is of a light 
green color, and has 
coral-red warts, with 
short black bristles, 

Fig. 18T.— The CaterpiUar, or Larva. OVCr itS body. It fecds 

L 




242 NATURAL HISTOEY. 

on the leaves of trees till August or September, and then 
descends to seek for some currant or barberry bush upon 
which it may build its house for its winter sleep. " Any 
one," says Professor Jaeger, ''who meets with these 
caterpillars in the above-mentioned months may have 
the pleasure of witnessing their metamorphosis into co- 
coons, and several months after into an elegant moth, by 
taking them up very carefully upon leaves and carrying 
them home, placing them in a spacious box, with a little 
undisturbed earth at the bottom, and then putting into 
it some dry brush-wood, about one foot high, and cover- 
ing the whole with gauze in order to prevent their es- 
cape." 

415. I will now describe the peculiar construction of 
the cocoon. That of the Silkworm is a simple cocoon, 
no special provision being made against the cold, as the 
pupa state, instead of lasting through the winter months, 
is finished in a few weeks. But in the case of the Ce- 
cropia Moth there is a covering outside of the proper 
cocoon. This covering is fastened to a branch of some 
bush, as in Fig. 188. It is made very strong, as its fibres 




Fig. 188. 



are much more closely joined together than those of the 
cocoon inside of it. Often there are leaves attached to 
it, leaving the impression of their veins or nerves upon 
it when you have detached them. The animal evidently 
uses these leaves as a sort of scaflEblding when it begins 
to construct its winter home. In spinning this covering 
it works all the while inside, as it does in spinning the 
cocoon. After finishing it, it lines it with coarse loose 



THE METAMOEPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 243 

silk, and then proceeds to spin its cocoon in the same 
way that the Silkworm does, making it of the same shape. 
The loose silk between the cocoon and the outer cover- 
ing is blanketing for the purpose of warmth. By these 
means the pupa or chrysahs is secured against dampness 
and cold, and amid all the storms of winter is even more 
safe from harm than an infant in its cradle under the 
watch of an anxious mother. 

416. As in the case of the Silkworm Moth, the Ce- 
cropia always comes out at the smaller end, and here 
both the cocoon and the outer covering are made less 
close and strong than in the other portions. In New 
England this Moth comes forth in June. Last year I 
obtained from my garden two cocoons which were near 
each other on a currant bush. I gave one to a lad living 
on Staten Island, and retained the other myself. His 
Moth came out three weeks before mine, corresponding 
with the advance of the season there before ours. When 
mine emerged I caught the same evening in my house 
two others, and on the following evening three more. 
As we saw none before or after, this seems to show that 
these Moths come forth almost simultaneously in the 
same locality. 

417. Dr. Harris, in his work on the Insects of New 
England, recommends a trial of the manufacture of silk 
from the cocoons of the Cecropia and some other of 
our large indigenous Moths. "Their large cocoons," 
he says,. " consisting entirely of silk, the fibres of which 
far surpass those of the Silkworm in strength, might be 
employed in the formation of fabrics similar to those 
manufactured in India from the cocoons of the Tusseh 
and Arindi Silkworms, the durability of which is such 
that a garment of Tusseh silk is scarcely worn out in the 
lifetime of one person, but often descends from mother 
to daughter ; and even the covers of palanquins made 
of it, though exposed to the influence of the weather, 
last many years. Experiments have been made with 



244 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 189.— Silk of the Cecropia. 



the silk of the Cecro- 
pia, which has been 
carded and spun, and 
woven into stockings 
that wash like linen." 
The silk can be very 
readily reeled off 
from the cocoons as 
seen in Fig. 189. 

418. Some Insects 
go through an im- 
perfect metamorpho- 
sis, as the Grasshop- 
pers and the Locusts. 
They are produced 
from the eggs without wings, but have them formed 
gradually while they are in a state of activity. 

Questions. — What are the three changes which most Insects pass 
through in their metamorphosis? Explain the terms larva, pupa, 
and imago. What are the different names applied to larvse ? What 
is said of the terms chrysalis and aurelia ? What is said of the con- 
trast between the larva and imago states? What is said of the 
growth of the larva ? What of the growth of the imago ? What of 
the casting of the skin of the larva? What is said of the various 
modes of passing the pupa state ? Describe the manner in which the 
Silkworm makes its cocoon. Describe the mode of its exit. What 
is said of the thread of which the cocoon is made ? What are the na- 
tive countries of the Silkworm ? What is said of the silk manufac- 
ture ? When pupae are to be out doors all winter, what provisions 
are adopted to guard against the cold ? Describe the Cecropia Moth. 
Describe its caterpillar. Describe the construction of its cocoon. 
What is said of its exit? What is said of the manufacture of silk 
from the cocoons of this and other large Moths ? What is said of 
Grasshoppers and Locusts ? 



COLEOPTEBA, OR SHEATH-WINGED II^SECTS. 245 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

COLEOPTERA, OR SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS. 

419. I NOW pass to the consideration of the different 
orders of Insects, noticing particularly some of each or- 
der. They are arranged in orders according to the char- 
acter of the wings. They are chiefly the following: 1. 
Coleoptera {koXeoq^ koleos^ a sheath, and Trrepor^ pteron^ a 
wing), Sheath- winged. This is the order of Beetles. 2. 
Orthoptera {Spddg, orthos^ straight, and irTspov)^ Straight- 
winged. This includes the Grasshoppers, Locusts, etc. 
3. Neuroptera {vevpov^ neuron^ nerve, and Trrepov)^ [N'erve- 
winged. 4. Hymenoptera {vjjlev^ humen^ a membrane, 
and 'KTEpov) , Membrane-winged, including the Bees, Wasps, 
etc. 5. Lepidoptera (XcTrtc, lepis^ a scale, and -ktz^ov)^ 
Scale- winged. The Butterflies and Moths. 6. Hemip- 
tera {ijjuKTvg^ hemisiis^ half, and vrrepov). Half- winged, in- 
cluding Bugs, Cicadae, etc. V. Diptera (Stc, dis^ twice, 
and irrepoy)^ Two-winged. Flies, Musquitoes, etc. 8. 
Aphaniptera {cKpavrjg^ aphanes^ not manifest, and izTEpov), 
The Fleas belong to this order. 9. Aptera, Wingless. 
The prefix a in this case is privative or negative. The 
common louse, sugar-lice, spring-tails, etc., belong to this 
order. There are some other orders, which are small, 
however, and of little importance. 

420. The order of Coleoptera, or Sheath-winged In- 
sects, is the most numerous of all the orders. " It is 
probable," says Carpenter, " that from thirty to forty 
thousand species of Beetles alone now exist in the cabi- 
nets of collectors ; and we may safely afloirm that at least 
as many more remain to be discovered." They are of 
various size, some being very small, and others among 
the largest of Insects. There are some that are five 



246 NATURAL HISTORY. 

inches in length. The Beetles, when not flying, appear 
to have no wings. The elytra, § 398, are horny, and fit 
closely together on the back. These are sometimes very 
beautiful, even splendid, having various colors, golden, 
green, blue, etc. I have seen them in some cases with 
depressions in them spotted with gold, exactly as if real 
gold-leaf were inserted by powerful pressure. The wings, 
which are commonly twice as large as the elytra in length 
as well as in breadth, are folded uj) under these covers 
very curiously when the insect is not on the wing. There 
are only a few exceptions in the whole order to this 
mode of arrangement. 

421. The metamorphosis in this order is complete. 
The larvae are worm-like, having soft bodies, but they 
commonly have horny heads. Those which lead a re- 
tired, still life, as those which are in nuts, have no legs, 
for they need none. Those larvae which are carnivorous 
have the strongest legs. In some of the herbivorous 
species, besides the true legs, there are fleshy tubercles, 
w^hich are called pro-legs. Previously to entering the 
pupa state the larva often forms a case for itself of bits 
of earth, or of chips, which it unites together by silken 
threads or with a gluey substance. The puj)ae of some 
Beetles are inactive for years. 

422. Beetles, as suggested by Professor Jaeger, are 
of three kinds : 1 . Carnivorous Beetles : they devour 
living insects, and are the beasts of prey of the insect 
world. 2. Scavenger Beetles, which live on putrid mat- 
ter, carrion, and decaying vegetable substances. 3. Her- 
bivorous Beetles, which feed on living plants and fruits. 
The first two kinds are of great use to man, but the last 
are injurious. I will notice a few of each kind. 

423. Of the Carnivorous Beetles, the Lady-birds, so 
called, are known to almost every one. They look like 
little colored and spotted turtles. The larvae of these 
Beetles are of great service to man, for they prey upon 
the plant-lice which are so destructive to many plants, 



COLEOPTERA, OR SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS. 247 

being more effective in this respect than the Beetles 
themselves. They are about half an inch long, of a 
bluish color with four or six yellow spots, and are seen 
creeping along branches and leaves in search of the 
plant-lice. After living in the larva state for a fortnight, 
they fasten themselves on some leaf, 
^"\i|^/ cast off their skins, spin a cocoon, and, 

^^3M|^<-y after a fortnight's sleep, issue as Lady- 
7 JBHB ^ birds. One of the species, the IsTorth- 
j^l^l ern Lady-bird, is seen in Fig. 190. It 

< V is found chiefly on the pumpkin vine, 

^^^' Lad~bi°?^^™ where, in the company of their larvae, 
they feed on the Plant-lice and the lar- 
vae of the Squash Bug. 

424. The Tiger Beetles, of which two species are 

represented in Figs. 191 
and 192, are thus named 
both on account of their 
variegated colors and 
their rapacity. They feed 
on Caterpillars, Flies, and 
other Beetles, and will 

Figs. 191, 192.— Tiger Beetles , ^ ^^ 

even devour each other 
when shut up together. Their larvae or grubs are as 
rapacious as they are themselves. They live in holes 
which they dig in the ground. When they are hungry 
they come to the mouth of their holes, and there keep 
watch, seizing the first insect that passes over the hole. 
Though these grubs are soft and white, they have pow- 
erful and well-armed jaws, with which they gratify their 
rapacity. 

425. In Figs. 193 and 194 (p. 248) you have two spe- 
cies of Caterpillar-hunters, so called from their habits. 
They are very handsome Beetles. The green Caterpil- 
lar-hunter, Fig. 193, is a great devourer of the Canker- 
worm. These Beetles run about in the grass after the 
worms, and go up the trmiks of the trees to capture 
them as thev come down. 




248 NATURAL HISTORY. 




Figs. 193 and 194 — CaterpilLar-hunters. 

426. The Scavenger Beetles, forming the second divi- 
sion, have very fine coverings, and their feet are fitted for 
digging. Though they are not only in the midst of 
filth, but live on it, they are remarkably clean, and are 
generally of a bright color, and some of them are very 
beautiful. These Beetles, and their grubs, are of great 
service as scavengers. Although each one does but lit- 
tle, the multitude of them clear up a great deal of filth, 
which would otherwise offend our senses and injure the 
health. Those Beetles of this class which are of very 
large size, sometimes five inches in length, are found in 
the tropical regions of America, Asia, and Africa. 

427. To this class belong the common Tumble-bugs, 
or Pellet Beetles. These exhibit great industry in roll- 
ing balls of manure and earth mingled together. In 
every one of these is deposited an egg. These busy an- 
imals dig holes two or three feet deep, and into these 
they roll the balls. While they thus provide for their 
progeny, they are at the same time useful in distributing 
manure among the roots of plants where it is wanted. 

428. To this group also belong the Carrion Beetles, 
of which there are many species, some of them very 
beautiful. They are exceedingly busy wherever there 
is the dead body of any animal, devouring it and depos- 




COLEOPTERA, OR SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS. 249 

iting in it and upon it their eggs. The Crusader Carrion 
Beetle, Fig. 195, is thus named "by Jae- 
ger from a black spot on the back of its 
yellow thorax, which resembles some- 
what the figure of a cross which the Cru- 
saders wore on their coats. The wing- 
Fig 105 -The Cm- ^^^'^^^5 ^^ elytra, are brown, and the head 
sader Carrion Beetle, and Icgs are black. Thcse Beetles are 
seen in immense multitudes in some carrion. The habits 
of the Big Gravedigger are very curious. It gathers in 
great numbers round a dead frog, or mouse, or bird, etc. 
The Beetles first examine the spot where the dead body 
lies ; if it be stony, they select a proper place, and, by 
their combined efforts, remove the body there. They 
now proceed to dig the earth away from under it with 
their fore feet, and do not leave it till they have sunken 
it about a foot in the ground. 

429. There is a very small Beetle of this class which 
is a great destroyer of the collections of the naturalist, 
eating the skins of stuffed animals, and the internal parts 
of insects. It is hence called the Cabinet Beetle. It is 
difiicult often to keep a cabinet free from them, for their 
larvae will eat through the hardest boards. 

430. Among the Scavenger Beetles are some wood- 
eating insects. These are of great service in tropical 
countries, where large trees are prostrated in great num- 
bers by hurricanes and tempests. It would take a long 
time for the natural process of decay to remove them ; 
but these insects reduce them to dust in a short time, 
and this dust, becoming incorporated with the earth, fer- 
tilizes it. The common Horn Bug or Stag Beetle belongs 
to this group. The Stag Beetle of Europe is twice as 
large as that of this country. It is the grubs that live 
on wood, and not the Beetles themselves. The grubs 
of some of the wood-eating Beetles are some years in ar- 
riving at the mature state in which they are ready to 
change into Beetles. 

L 2 



250 NATURAL HISTORY. 

431. The Herbivorous Beetles live on vegetable food 
both in their larva and imago state. Some eat fruits, 
some grain, some leaves, and some even wood. Science 
has been of great service in pointing out the Insects that 
inflict these various injuries, and also in indicating the 
means of prevention by discovering the habits of these 
animals. 

432. To this class belong the Spring Beetles, some- 
times called Skippers or Snapping Bugs. They are so 
constructed that when they are laid on the back they 
can throw themselves upward, and coming down alight 
on their feet. This performance, which is a great amuse- 
ment to children, is done by a spring which the animal 
has in its body for this purpose. The largest and hand- 
somest of these Beetles in the United States is the Vel- 
vet-spotted Spring Beetle. Another species of the same 
genus is the Lightning Spring Beetle, Fig. 196. This In- 
sect, which is nearly an inch and 
a half long, has two yellow cone- 
like projections on the sides of 
the thorax, which emit light, and 
appear, while the animal is alive, 
hke two shining emeralds. It 
also emits light from the under 
surface of the segments of the 
abdomen. In Cuba ladies fasten 
these Beetles in their hair as or- 

Fig. 196.— The Lightning Spring namcuts at evenino^ parties. The 

Beetle. . 

light of our common Fireflies is 
emitted from two or three segments of the abdomen, as 
you may see by catching one, and holding it in your 
hand turned over on its back. 

433. The Capricorn Beetles are so named from the re- 
semblance of their long antennae to the horns of the 
Mountain Goat. These Beetles are very beautiful, al- 
though their grubs are ugly. The Painted Capricorn 
appears with us in the autumn, and may be seen in the 




COLEOPTEEA, OR SHEATH- WI:N^GED INSECTS. 251 

flowers of the golden-rod. Its body looks like black vel- 
vet. Its head and chest are crossed with yellow lines, 
and its elytra have lines of the same color variously ar- 
ranged. The female deposits her eggs in the crevices 
of the bark of locust-trees, and the grubs hatched from 
them eat the w^ood and the pith, making winding pas- 
sages in doing this, and, of course, proving destructive to 
many of these trees. There is in the southern parts of 
our country a Beetle of this family three and a half inches 
long, called the Stag Beetle Capricorn, because its formi- 
dable jaws, an inch in length, are like those of the Stag 
Beetles. In South America is found a splendid Beetle, 
called the Long-armed Capricorn, its fore legs being five 
inches in length. It is of a dark olive-green color, with 
markings of red, yellow, and white, resembling hiero- 
glyiDliics. 

434. The Spanish Fly, which is used in making the 
common blistering plaster, is an herbivorous Beetle. It 
has a brilliant green metallic hue. It is the powder of 
the dried Beetles that makes the basis of the blistering 
salve — another example of animal chemistry both won- 
derful and mysterious, § ITO. 

435. The Curculios or "Weevils are a family of herbiv- 
orous Beetles that do great injury to fruits and grains. 
The perfect insect deposits its eggs in them, and the 
grubs or maggots live on the substance in which they 
are hatched. Thus a little hairy gray Beetle deposits 
its eggs in the young and tender peapod, and the larvae 
hatched from them eat portions of the peas as they grow. 
Multitudes of these larvoB are boiled in the peas prepared 
for the table. So also in almost every seed-pea there is 
either a Beetle or an opening from which one has come 
out. In the same way the maggot found in the chest- 
nut comes from an egg deposited in it by a Beetle in an 
early stage of the fruit. So also in the apple and other 
fruits. 

436. These Weevils, or Snout Beetles, have an appa- 




252 NATURAL HISTORY. 

ratus for boring holes in the grains and fruits, as you see 
in the Palm Weevil, Fig. 197. " Its larvae," says Jaeger, 
" are known in the tropics of 
America under the name of Palm- 
worms, and they live in large 
numbers in the trunks of several 
palm-trees, but principally in the 
cabbage -palm, which grows in 
abundance in the mountainous 
parts of St. Domingo. When 
fully grown they are about three 
inches long and one inch in cir- 
cumference, of a dirty yellow 
color, with a black head, looking 
like a piece of fat enveloped in a 
transparent skin. These disgust- 
ing-looking animals are roasted 
Fig. 197.— Palm wee\ii. upon a woodcu spit, or broilcd 
and eaten with dry and pulverized bread, seasoned with 
salt and pepper, and considered by many epicures as the 
7ie plus ultra of delicacies." 

437. The Leaf-eaters, which live mostly on leaves and 

flowers, are very small Beetles, very richly colored. 

Among the most brilliant is the Gilded Dandy, Fig. 198, 

found abundantly on the dog-bane in July 

and August. The larvae or grubs of the 

Leaf-eaters have six legs, as they must 

crawl about in getting their food, instead 

of remaining in one spot as the fruit-eating 

^^' DanTy. ^ grubs of the Weevils do. 

Questions. — Name the orders of Insects, and give the chief charac- 
teristics of each. What is the extent of the order Coleoptera ? What 
is said of the size of the insects belonging to it ? What is said of the 
elytra ? What is said of the larvae of Beetles ? What are the three 
kinds of Beetles ? What is said of the Lady-bird ? What of the Ti- 
ger Beetles ? What of the Caterpillar-hunters ? What of the Scav- 
enger Beetles? Of the Pellet Beetles? Of the -Carrion Beetles? 




STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS. 253 

Of the Crusader Carrion Beetle ? Of the Big Gravedigger ? Of the 
Cabinet Beetle ? Of the Wood-eating Beetles ? What is said of the 
herbivorous Beetles ? Of the Spring Beetles ? Of the Lightning 
Spring Beetle? What gives the name to the Capricorn Beetles? 
What is said of the Painted Capricorn ? Of the Stag Beetle Capri- 
corn ? Of the Long-armed Capricorn ? Of the Spanish Fly ? What 
is said of the Curculios ? What of the Palm Weevil ? What of the 
Leaf-eaters ? 



CHAPTER XXV. 

STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS. 



438. The second order is that of the Orthoptera, or 
Straight-winged Insects. Their wings, when not in use, 
are folded lengthwise like a fan, and are extended straight 
along the top or the sides of the back. These are cover- 
ed by a pair of thicker wings, or, rather, wing-shaped 
members, which in the Grasshoppers and the Locusts are 
long and narrow, and are joined together on the back, 
making two slopes like the roof of a house. These wing- 
covers are intermediate between the stiff, horny elytra of 
the Beetles and the membranous wings of some other 
insects. 

439. The insects of this order do not go through with 
a complete metamorphosis. They do not pass at all into 
the torpid pupa state, but are active during the whole 
period of their existence. At first they are destitute of 
wings ; but they become winged as they grow, casting 
off their skins about six times during the process. They 
are divided into four families: 1. The Cursoria, or Run- 
ners. 2. The Raptoria, or Graspers. 3. The Ambulato- 
ria, or Walkers. 4. The Saltatoria, or Jumpers. 

440. The family of Cursoria includes the Cockroaches 
and the Earwigs. There are mth us two kinds of Cock- 
roaches — the native ones, found under stones in the field, 
and those which have, like the Rats, been introduced 
from other countries, and live in our houses. These vo- 



254 NATURAL HISTORY. 

racious animals, troublesome as they are here, are vastly 
more so in some other countries. It is said that some 
houses in St. Petersburg became so infested with them 
that no one could live in them, and they were burned 
down to destroy these insects. 

441. Earwigs are little insects having a pair of nippers, 
shutting like scissors, at the hinder end of the body. 
They eat both fruit and flowers, disfiguring the latter 
with holes. They are very timid, running for some crev- 
ice whenever disturbed, and thinking that they are safe 
if they put their heads under cover, and thus get out 
of sight of danger. They are apt, when frightened, to 
plunge down into the bottom of a flower, if they happen 
to be on one, leaving, however, their curious forked tails 
standing up among the stamens. Their name is not an 
appropriate one, for they have really never been known 
to enter the human ear. These insects are very difier- 
ent from the animal so often called by this name in this 
country, which is really not an insect. 

442. Among the Raptoria is that singular insect the 
Mantis Religiosa, or Praying Mantis, Fig. 199. It is so 




Fig. 199. — Mantis Religiosa. 

called from the attitude which it assumes when it is 
watching for its prey. The front of its thorax is raised, 
and the two fore legs are held up together, like a pair 
of arms, ready to seize any insect that may come within 
its reach. These insects are extremely voracious. If 
two are kept together without food, they fight until one 
is killed, and the Aactor devours his adversary. Fights 



STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS. 



255 



between these insects are among the sjDorts of the Chi- 
nese, the pleasure being the same as that which is de- 
rived from cock-fights and bull-fights. 

443. The family of the Ambulatoria is a very small 
one, including those very singular animals, Walking- 
sticks, Walking-leaves, etc. They lead a sluggish life 
among the branches of shrubs, living on the young 
shoots. Their color and shape being so much like those 
of things around them, enable them commonly to escape 
observation. Some of them, as the Walking-stick, Fig. 
200, have no wings, and look like dead twigs, the legs 




Fig. 200.— Walking-stick. 



appearing like little branches. There are found of this 
insect twenty species in South America, three in North 
America, three in Eurojoe, forty in Asia, twenty-seven in 
AustraUa, and two in Africa. The Leaf Insect, Fig. 201, 
is of the same family. It is found in South America. 




Fig. 201.— The Leaf Insect. 



256 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 




It resembles a leaf both in shape and color, and the 
wings have even the veinings of a leaf. 

444. The family of Saltatoria, or Jumpers, is a very 
extensive one. It comprises the Crickets, the Grass- 
hoppers, and the Locusts. The Crickets are so well 
known to you that I need not describe them. They are 
mostly inhabitants of the ground, in which many of them 

burrow. One spe- 
cies, the Mole Crick- 
et, Figure 202, is so 
named because its 
anterior extremities, 
and its general habits 
also, are similar to 
those of the Mole. 
It is a great digger. 

Fig. 202.-The Mole Cricket. rj.^^ f^^^^^ ^^^^^^ .^ 

connection with its burrow, a smooth, round cell, which, 
with the passage leading to it, resembles a bottle with a 
long bent neck. Here it deposits from two to four hund- 
red eggs. The Tree Cricket, Fig. 
203, is a very delicate insect. Its 
color is pale ivory ; its antennae and 
legs are very long, and its wing- 
covers are thin, and are prettily or- 
namented with three oblique raised 
lines. Its familiar shrill sound is pro- 
duced only by the male Cricket, by 
raising up the wing-covers and rub- 
bing them together. These differ 
decidedly from the other members 
of the Cricket tribe in living wholly 
on trees. The female deposits her 
eggs in the autumn, in incisions which 
she makes in the branches, and they are hatched in the 
following summer, the young Crickets obtaining their 
perfect state with us in August. 




Fig. 203.— Tree Cricket. 



STKAIGHT-WINGED INSECTSc 



257 



445. The Grasshoppers differ from the Crickets in 
having the wing-covers, vrhich in the latter He horizon- 
tally flat, so arranged as to make two slopes, like the 
roof of a house. Of the many species I will notice but 
one, the well-known Katydid of this country. It is about 
one and a half inches long, and its expanded wings meas- 
ure together three inches. The whole insect is green, 
the wings being pale green, and the wing-covers a dark 
green. The wings are gauze-like, and are exceedingly 
delicate. The male, as seen in Fig. 204, has, at the base 




Fig. 204.— Male Katydid. 

or root of each wing-cover, a stout horny ridge surround- 
ing a stiff, thin membrane, making two drum-heads. It 
is by the rubbing of these together that the peculiar 
sound of this insect is produced. The female Katydid 
has no such apparatus, and therefore is perfectly still. 
It has at the end of its body, as seen in Fig. 205 (p. 258), 



258 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 205.— Female Katydid. 

a sword-like instrument : this is called an ovipositor — 
that is, an instrument for depositing the eggs in their 
right 2^1ace. With it the insect pierces holes in the 
ground in the autumn, placing the eggs there, which are 
hatched the following year. Some time elapses between 
the birth of the Katydids and the attainment of their 
growth, and the full production of their wings, which is 
necessary to the production of the loud sound with which 
they greet our ears at night in the latter part of summer. 
446. The Locusts, one species of which you see repre- 
sented in Fig. 206, have, like the Grasshoppers, the roof- 
like arrangement of the wing-covers, but they have not 
that peculiar apparatus for the production of sound which 
the Grasshoppers have. They have also shorter anten- 
nae and stouter legs. They are insects of greater power. 
In some parts of the world they are the most extensive- 



STEAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS. 



259 






\ 




- — ^ ^w==- v-t- ^ 

Fig. 200.— Locust. 

ly destructive of all insects. Some species are occasion- 
ally quite destructive in some parts of this country. But 
it is in Asia and Africa that they appear in such immense 
armies, leaving not a vestige of vegetation in their track, 
eating the corn and the grass down to the roots, and 
stripping the trees of their leaves. Mr. Gumming, in de- 
scribing the flight of an army of these insects, says, " I 
stood looking at them until the air was darkened with 
their masses, while the plain on which we stood became 
densely covered with them. Far as my eye could reach, 
east, west, north, and south, they stretched in one un- 
broken cloud, and more than an hour elapsed before their 
devastating legions had swept by." These insects some- 
times make incursions into Europe. One of these is de- 
scribed by Professor Jaeger, who was an eyewitness of 
it as he was traveling in Russia in 1825 across its desert 
prairies. The carriage-wheels moved through Locusts 
piled up to the height of two feet. This state of things 
existed over a wide extent of country. The insects were 
now wingless ; but the inhabitants of the fertile regions 
north feared that, as soon as their wings were grown, 
they would come north and devour every green thing. 
Before this vast insect army could do this, the Emperor 



260 NATUKAL HISTOEY. 

Alexander sent an army of thirty thousand men against 
it. " The soldiers," says Jaeger, " forming a line of sev- 
eral hundred miles, and advancing toward the south, at- 
tacked them, not with sword and gun, but with more an- 
cient implements — with shovels. They collected them, 
as far as possible, in sacks, and burned them." Notwith- 
standing this war upon them, the vegetation was destroy- 
ed by them to a great extent. 

447. The ravages of the Locust are often adverted to 
in the Bible, and the descriptions there given correspond 
with those of modern travelers. They are spoken of as 
a " great army," and it is said that " the land before them 
is as the Garden of Eden, and behind them a desolate 
wilderness" — a result often witnessed at the present day. 
The manner in which this insect army makes its invasion 
is most graphically described in the second chapter of 
Joel. 

448. Some species of Locusts are eaten now in the 
East as they were in the time of John the Baptist. Mr, 
Gumming, a traveler in South Africa, thus speaks of 
them as food. " Locusts afford fattening and wholesome 
food to man, birds, and all sorts of beasts ; cows and 
horses, lions, jackals, hyaenas, antelopes, elephants, etc., 
devour them. We met a party of Batlapis carrying 
heavy burdens of them on their backs. Our dogs made 
a fine feast on them. The cold, frosty night had render- 
ed them unable to take wing until the sun should restore 
their powers. As it was difficult to obtain sufficient food 
for my dogs, I and Isaac took a large blanket, which we 
spread under a bush whose branches were bent to the 
ground with the mass of Locusts which covered it, and, 
having shaken the branches, in an instant I had more 
Locusts than I could carry on my back ; these we roast- 
ed for ourselves and our dogs." 

Questions. — What is the arrangement of the wings of the Orthop- 
tera ? What is said of the metamorphosis of this order ? What are 
its four famihes ? What does the family Cursoria include ? What 



NET- WINGED INSECTS. 261 

is said of the Cockroaches? What of the Earwigs? What of the 
Praying Mantis? What of the Walking-stick? Of the Leaf In- 
sect ? What does the family Saltatoria include ? What is said of 
the Mole Cricket ? Of the Tree Cricket ? How do the Grasshoppers 
differ from the Crickets ? What is said of the Katydid ? In what 
way is its sound produced? How do the Locusts differ from the 
Grasshoppers ? In what countries are they at times exceedingly nu- 
merous ? Describe their appearance in Russia in 1825, and the means 
taken to destroy them. What is said of their ravages ? Give the de- 
scription from the Prophet Joel of the invasion of an army of Locusts. 
What is said of these insects as food ? 



CHAPTER XXVI, 

NET -WINGED INSECTS. 

449. The insects of the order Neuroptera, or Net-wing- 
ed Insects, have, hke the Coleoptera and Orthoptera, a 
mouth fitted for mastication, but differ from them in their 
wings. They have no wing-covers, but there are com- 
monly four thin and transparent wings, with the veins 
forming a deUcate net-work, as seen in Fig. 207 (p. 262). 
The posterior wings are ordinarily as large as the ante- 
rior, but in some species they are quite small, and in some 
few entirely absent. The body is long, slender, and soft. 
These insects are of intermediate size, none being either 
very large or very small. There are about a thousand 
species. The metamorphosis is not alike in all. In some 
it is complete, the larva having a form very different from 
the imago or perfect insect, while in others there is little 
difference except in the absence of wings in the larva 
and their presence in the imago, as in the Grasshoppers 
and Locusts. By these differences the order is naturally 
divided into two groups, in the first of which the insect 
is active during its pupa state, while in the other it is 
torpid during this state, except just before its last meta- 
morphosis. Of the first group there are five families, the 
Dragon-flies, Day-flies, Stone-flies, White Ants, and Book- 



262 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




lice. In the first three of these families, the insect in its 
larva and pupa states inhabits the water, respiring like a 
fish, having peculiar organs for this purpose at the sides 
of the abdomen or at its end, while in the form of its 
body it is quite like the insect in its perfect state. 

450. Of the Dragon-flies, the most conspicuous and 
best-known family, there are about two hundred ascer- 
tained species. These are the Swallows of the Insect 



NET-WIXGED INSECTS. 



263 



tribe ; for they catch their i^rey, which consists of Flies, 
Musquitoes, Butterflies, etc., on the wing. They do this, 
however, with their claws, and not, like the Swallows, with 
their mouths. That they may readily see their prey as 
they fly about so swiftly in search of it, they have very 
large, compound eyes, as you see in Fig. 207, one of our 
common Dragon-flies, or Darning-needles, as they are 
often called. These formidable-looking insects are en- 
tirely harmless, never biting or stinging when we catch 
them. They are of great service to us in destroying the 
Musquitoes, of which they devour a great number. Some 
species are beautifully variegated in color. 

451. The eggs of these insects are deposited on the 
leaves of aquatic plants. The larvae live wholly in the 
water. They have some very singular peculiarities. They 
have a kind of mask with which they can cover up their 
mandibles and most of the head. But this mask can be 
unfolded and extended, and, having on its end a pair of 
claws, it is used as an instrument for seizmg their prey, 
as represented at A in Fig. 208. At B the insect is seen 
with the mask folded up. You see here, also, water is- 
suing from the end of the larva's body. It is in this way 
that it propels itself through the water, just as a rocket 




Fig. 208. 



264 NATUKAL HISTORY. 

rises by the stream of fire at its end. Another purpose 
is accomphshed, also, by this operation. The breathing 
apparatus is in this quarter of the body, the . air in the 
water being there introduced to the blood of the insect, 
just as it is introduced to the blood of the fish in its gills. 
It spends nearly a year in the water, and then comes 
its metamorphosis. This, Jaeger says, "may be ob- 
served almost daily from the month of April until Octo- 
ber, but occurs principally in the months of May and 
June. But this transformation does not take place in the 
water, but out of it ; and when ready for their metamor- 
phosis, the larvae climb up the stem of some water-plant, 
and in about two hours after are capable of raising them- 
selves up by their wings and flying away in the air. This 
whole operation may be witnessed by putting the grubs 
into a pail of water, and placing in it some sticks or 
branches upon which they may creep up and prepare 
themselves for their aerial journeys." 

452. The Ephemeridae, or Day-flies, are so called from 
their short existence in the imago state, which, like that 
of some flowers, is limited to a single day. In their larva 
state, however, they have a long life of two or even three 
years. During this time they are inhabitants of the wa- 
ter, having leaf-like appendages on their sides as their 
gills or respiratory apparatus. When they are about to 
change to the imago state, wings are formedybut are kept 
folded up till they are ready to leave the water. While 
these are forming the insect is said to be in the pupa or 
chrysalis state, and yet it is as active now as when it was 
a larva. The escape of the insect into the air is so quick- 
ly done, that it seems as if it flew directly out of the wa- 
ter. It casts off" its skin as readily as a man puts off a 
coat, unfolds its wings, and, with its feet resting on its 
cast-off skin, it takes its flight. 

453. These insects are sometimes produced in such 
multitudes that the ground is covered with their dead 
bodies, and they are carted away as manure. Professor 



NET-WINGED INSECTS. 265 

Jaeger saw great numbers of them once in the Raritan 
River, near Trenton ; but the greatest display of them 
that he eyer witnessed was in the River Neva, in Russia. 
" The light of the sun," he says, '' was intercepted as in a 
thick fog, so much so that nothing could be distinguished 
at the distance of a few yards. The atmosphere had 
something the appearance it presents in a violent snow- 
storm, and thousands of Day-flies fell into our boat and 
all over our persons ; while the fishes in the water, the 
birds in the air, and the domestic fowls upon the shore, 
were every where feasting upon them." He farther says, 
" In the evening these flies are strongly attracted toward 
a light, perhaps more so than any other nocturnal insect, 
and it is very amusing to see the crowds of them that fly 
through an open window and dance around the light, 
making a variety of turns, and circles, and waltzes. They 
fly so close together, and glisten with such splendor, that 
the observer sees a ribbon of gold continually revolving 
around the light, or imagines a celestial globe of living 
circles revolving in every direction, while the light repre- 
sents the central sun." 

454. The Termites, or White Ants, are the only family 
of the order Neuroptera that live in communities with a 
regular social organization. They are, with some few ex- 
ceptions, confined to tropical climates. N"ext to the Lo- 
custs, they are the most destructive of insects, as not only 
food, but clothing, trees, fences, and even houses, are de- 
voured by them. One sjDecies has lately done great dam- 
age in France. While they are thus destructive, they 
are, considering their size, the greatest of all builders, go- 
ing far beyond man in this respect. Their habitations 
are some ten or twelve feet high, having much the shape 
of a sugar-loaf. They are built of clay, which these in- 
sects in some way render as hard as some kinds of stone. 
There are various apartments and winding passages in 
this dwelling, and there are passages dug in difierent di- 
rections under ground, all fined Avith the hardened clay. 

M 



266 NATUKAL HISTOKY. 

These galleries are sometimes carried under houses, which 
the Ants enter, and, eating out all of the inside of the 
timbers, leave them only as mere shells. Sometimes there 
are many of these curious structures in the same neigh- 
borhood. Dr. Adamson says that, in some parts near 
Senegal, there are so many of them near together that 
they appear like native villages. 

455. The community in one of these habitations is im- 
mense in number, consisting of laborers and soldiers un- 
der a king and queen. These last are the only ones that 
come to the imago or perfect state. The laborers seem 
to be larvae stopped in their development, so that they 
never acquire wings. The soldiers, on the other hand, 
are pupoe. The queen lays all the eggs, to the number, 
it is estimated, of forty or fifty millions in a year. This 
she does in a royal chamber set apart for this purpose. 
The laborers take the eggs as fast as she lays them, car- 
ry them away to the nurseries, where they are hatched, 
and take care of the young. They also do all the build- 
ing and repairing, gather all the stores, and perform all 
the labor of any kind that is needed. The soldiers, on 
the contrary, do no w^ork, but stand guard, and defend 
the community, in which they show great bravery and 
energy, appearing boldly upon the outposts when any en- 
emy appears, while all the laborers retire within. The 
royal chamber is near the centre of the hillock, and is 
surrounded by apartments which are occupied by what 
may be called the body-guard of the queen, some of the 
soldiers, and by her immediate attendants, some of the 
laborers. She can never leave her chamber, for no open- 
ing from it is large enough for the passage of her body, 
which is enormously enlarged for the production of its 
multitudes of eggs. The minutise of the arrangement 
of the nurseries and the various apartments, and of the 
economy of this wonderful community, are very interest- 
ing, but can not be entered upon here. 

456. The Book-lice form a small family nearly allied 



NET-AYIJS^GED INSECTS. 267 

to the Termites. They usually live in damp, dark places, 
and under bark. One species, destitute of wings, is oft- 
en found in old books, and in collections of dried plants, 
insects, etc. 

457. In the second division of the Neuroptera the 
metamorphosis is more complete, the pupa being inact- 
ive. The most singular of these insects is the Ant-lion. 
The wingless larva has a curious contrivance for secur- 
ing its prey, which consists of ants and other insects. It 
digs a funnel-shaped pit in sand, about thirty inches in ' 
diameter and twenty inches deep. This is an immense 
work for so small an insect. It accomplishes it in this 
way. It first traces the circle which is to be the outer 
edge of the pit. Then, placing itself within this line, it, 
with one of its legs for a spade, places some sand in a heap 
on its head, which with a quick jerk it throws beyond the 
circle to the extent of some inches. It does this around 
the whole circle ; then turning, goes round again, and so 
on until the whole pit is dug. It now conceals itself at 
the bottom, and Avatches for some insect to tumble down 
into the pit. If the insect does not fall to the bottom, and 
endeavors to escape, the Ant-lion, with its head and man- 
dibles, throws over it a quantity of sand, and thus over- 
whelms its victim. Of course, such a struggle disturbs 
the evenness of the pit, and the breaches are immediate- 
ly repaired, so as to be in readiness for other prey. 

458. There is a family belonging to this section, called 
Hemerobiidae, remarkable for the brilliancy of their eyes, 
and the delicacy and varied color of their wings, but es- 
pecially for the singular manner in which they dispose of 
their eggs. They deposit them usually upon plants, at 
the end of long and exceedingly delicate footstalks, the 
base of Avhich is firmly attached to the leaf. These foot- 
stalks are composed of a white \iscid matter, discharged 
at the time of laying the egg^ and speedily hardening in 
the air. As these eggs are laid in clusters, the appear- 
ance is that of small clusters of fungi. I saw some once 



268 



NATURAL HISTOKY. 



upou a pane of glass, and here the breadth and firmness 
of the attachment of the base of each footstalk were very 
manifest, seen through a small microscope. 

459. There is an aberrant family of this section called 
Caddice-flies, remarkable for the covering of hair with 
which both their bodies and wings are beset. The hab- 
its of their larvae are very interesting. They are aquatic, 
and live in cylindrical cases open at each end. To these 
cases they attach various substances, such as bits of 
Avood, weeds, pebbles, shells, etc. In Fig. 209 are repre- 
^_^. sented several of 



these tubular houses 
with various things 
attached to them. 
The diiferent spe- 
cies, of which there 
are many, seem to 
have their individ- 
ual preferences in 
relation to the sub- 
stances which they 
employ ; but they 
Fig. 209.-caddice-fly. readily disregard 

these preferences when there is a lack of those materials 
which they usually prefer. They never willingly leave 
their cases, but only thrust the head and a portion of the 
body out in search of their food. When about to pass 
into the torpid pupa state, they fasten their tubular houses 
to something in the water, and then close the two ends 
with a kind of silken grating which allows the water to 
pass freely through it. When they are to assume the 
imago form, they make a hole in the grating with a pair 
of hooked jaws which they now have. They are now 
good swimmers, using chiefly their hind legs for this pur- 
pose. Coming to the surface of the water, and perhaps 
climbing up soine plant, the skin of the swimmer gapes 
open, and out flies an insect about double the size of that 




MEMBRANE-WINGED INSECTS. 269 

which you see in the centre of Fig. 209. Fishes are very 
fond of the larvae of the Caddice, and hence the necessity 
of such a covering as they make for themselves. For this 
reason, also, they are often used as a bait by the angler. 

Questions. — In what are the Neuroptera like the Coleoptera and 
the Orthoptera ? What is said of their wings ? How are they divided 
into two groups ? What are the families of the first group ? What 
is there peculiar in three of these families ? What is said of the Drag- 
on-flies ? What of their eggs ? What of their larvae ? What of 
their metamorphosis ? What is said of the Day-flies ? Give the nar- 
ration of Jaeger in regard to them. What is said of the ravages of 
the Termites ? W^hat of their habitations ? What are the difl'erent 
classes in their communities ? W^hat is said of the laborers ? Of the 
soldiers ? Of the queen and her cell ? W^hat is said of the Book- 
lice ? What is the characteristic of the second group of the Neurop- 
tera ? What is said of the Ant-lion ? What is said of a family of 
insects that deposit their eggs on stalks? Give the account of the lar- 
vae of the Caddice-flies. Describe their pupa state and theii meta- 
moi'phosis. 



CHAPTER XXVn. 

MEMBRANE-WINGED INSECTS. 

460. The wings of the insects of the order Hymenop- 
tera are membranous, like those of the Neuroptera, but 
differ from them in not having a fine net-work of veins 
or nerves.* In some of the very small species there are 
almost no nerves. The name membrane-winged is there- 
fore more appropriate than vein-winged, which is some- 
times given to them. The anterior wings of the Hyme- 
noptera are usually much larger than the posterior, and 
during flight the wrings of each side are fastened togeth- 
er by minute hooks on the posterior wing, w^hich take 
hold of the rear margin of the anterior one. The females 

* These two terms, meaning the same thing, must not be confound- 
ed with the same terms used in their ordinary sense. In insects they 
are applied to the frame-work of the wings. 



270 NATURAL HISTORY. 

have a peculiar prolongation of the last segment, which 
in one division of the order is an ovipositor, and in the 
other is a sting. The Hymenoptera are farther distin- 
guished by a remarkable development of the instinctive 
faculties, especially those Avhich have a complicated so- 
cial organization of their communities, as the Bees. 

461. The metamorphosis in this order is complete, the 
pupse being quite inactive, and the larvse are more im- 
perfect than in any other order. In most of the species 
they have no feet, and resemble worms. The larva3 of 
some of them, however, are like caterpillars, and have 
eighteen or even twenty feet. Jaeger says of tliem that 
they live " in clean places, such as cells artificially built 
of wax, pieces of wood, leaves, or mortar ; or they dwell 
in wood, in holes under ground, in gall-apples, or oak- 
balls, and many live in caterpillars ; but none inhabit car- 
rion, dungliills, or other putrid and filthy places." 

462. None of the Hymenoptera are very large, and 
some are exceedingly small. In numbers this order is 
inferior only to the Coleoptera, and it has been estimated 
to contain one fourth of the whole insect world. Though 
the Hymenoptera are the most numerous and largest in 
tropical countries, they are widely distributed in almost 
every part of the earth. They are mostly great workers, 
and none are nocturnal, but all do their work in the day. 
Some of them are very useful to man, the Bees supplying 
him with honey and w^ax, and the Gall-insects with a 
material valuable for making ink, and especially for 
coloring. 

463. We divide the order into two groups: 1. The 
Terebrantia, or Borers, whose females have ovipositors ; 
2. The Aculeata, or Stingers, in which the females have 
a sting, or piercer, connected with a reservoir of poison. 
I will notice but a few families in each group. 

464. The family of Gall-flies is one of the most prom- 
inent among those of the first group. These insects, 
with their ovipositors, make slits in various parts of 



MEMBP. AXE-A\'IXGED IXSECTS . 



271 



plants and trees, depositing therein their eggs. They 
moisten these cuts also with an iiTitating fluid, which 
causes the growth of the tumors called galls. When 
the eggs are hatched, the larvae live on the interior of 
these tumors, just as the larvae of the Xut-weevil, § 435, 
]ive on the nuts in which they are hatched. It is re- 
markable that the same tree should produce on its dif- 
ferent parts galls of various forms and degrees of hard- 
ness, according to the species by which the eggs are 
deposited. The hardest gall is the common gall-nut of 
commerce, so much used in making ink, and in the proc- 
ess of dying black. This is the product of an oak grow- 
ing in the Levant. It has been found that the famous 
" Apples of Sodom" are galls of a difierent consistence 
on the same oak, occasioned by another species of Cy- 
nips, or Gall-fly. While the oak apples, so familiar to 
us, appear on the twigs of the oak, there are also difier- 
ent kinds of galls pro- 
duced on the leaves, 
the catkins or pendent 
flowers, and even on 
the root. Those on 
the root are large and 
woody, and eleven 
hundred larvae have 
been found in a single 
one of them. While 
the oak seems to be a 
great favorite of the 
Gall-flies, they infest 
also some other trees 
and shrubs. The gall 
of the wild rose, Fig. 
210, is very beautiful, 
being bright and va- 
riegated in color, and 
covered over with bristles. When cut open we find in 




Fig. 210.— Gall of the Wild Rose. 




272 NATURAL HISTORY. 

it little apartments occu- 
pied by the larvae, as you 
see in the figure. In Fig. 
211 you have one of the 

Fig. 211.— Magnified Bristle of the Gall. bristleS magnified. 

465. The insects of the Ichneumon family have long, 
slender bodies, long ovipositors, and long antennae, which 
are in a continual trembling motion. The ovipositor of 
some species is exceedingly long, as in Fig. 212 (on the 
opposite page). The two bristles accompanying the ovi- 
positor can be brought together by the animal so as to 
make a complete sheath for it. These insects deposit 
their eggs in the bodies of the larvae of other insects, and 
the larvae hatched from them hve on these bodies just as 
the gall insects live on the galls in which they are hatch- 
ed. Those which have long ovii30sitors pierce with them 
the bark of trees or decayed wood, in order to find larvae 
in which they can deposit their eggs. Those which have 
shorter ovipositors dejDosit their eggs in the bodies of 
caterpillars which they find crawling about. We some- 
times see a caterpillar with a considerable number of 
little barrel-shaped silken bodies standing out upon its 
skin. These are the cocoons of the Ichneumon larvae, 
which, after living for some time in the fat of the cater- 
pillar, just under its skin, have come out and have spun 
their cocoons, that they might go into the pupa state. 
The Ichneumon family is very numerous. Carpenter 
states that there are j^robably over three thousand spe- 
cies in Europe alone. 

466. The Chrysididae, or Ruby-tailed Flies, are a small 
group, adorned with such brilliant metallic tints that they 
have been said to be the Humming-birds of the insect 
world. The females deposit their eggs in the nest of 
wild Bees and other Hymenoptera, and thus the larvae 
eat the food designed by these latter for their own oflT- 
spring. Here is a striking analogy to the habit of the 
English Cuckoo, alluded to in § 268. 



MEMBEAIS'E-WINGED IIs^SECTS. 



273 




Fig. 212 — Long-tailed Ichneumon Fly. 

M2 



274 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

467. The family of Sawflies is quite an extensive aber- 
rant family. They are so called from a curious double 
saw in the ovipositor, Avith which they make holes in the 
branches and other parts of trees for the deposit of their 
eggs. Carpenter mentions one species in England, whose 
larvce are very destructive to turnips, devastating a whole 
field in a few days by devouring the soft tissue of the 
leaves ; and he states that the most effectual remedy has 
been found to be the introduction of ducks into the fields, 
as they very greedily devour the larvie. 

468. Of the Aculeate division of the Hymenoptera we 
make two subdivisions — the Predaceous, or those which 
live on prey, and the Melliferous, or honey-collecting 
stingers. 

469. There is one group of the Predaceous division, 
including several families, which may be called, from their 
peculiar habits, diggers. They are known commonly as 
Scmd and Wood Wasps. They are solitary — that is, do 
not live in communities. They therefore are all males 
and females, and have no neuters or workers. The fe- 
males commonly dig out cells in the ground, or in posts 
and timbers. In these they deposit with their egg?-> in- 
sects which they have killed, so that the larvae, when 
hatched, may have something to live upon. Sometimes 
the insects thus deposited are only stung suflSciently to 
render them powerless. Decomposition is thus prevent- 
ed, and the larvae, when they come forth from the eggs, 
kill the insects and devour them. The perfect insects 
are active in their habits, flying about and running over 
sand-banks with their wings in constant motion. They 
are fond of the nectar of flowers, a very diflerent food 
from that which they devour in the greedy larva state. 
Those which are sand-burrowers have strong brushes on 
their legs with which they excavate their nests, while 
the wood-burrowers have powerful mandibles with tooth- 
like projections, which convert the wood into sawdust 
in making the burrow. 



MEMBRAJS^E-WINGED INSECTS. 



275 



470. The Mud- wasp, Fig. 213, is one of the sand-bur- 
rowers. The fol- 
lowing is the ac- 
count given of it 
by Jaeger. "This 
insect is more than 
an inch long, and 
of a dark blue- 
purjDle color. It 
makes its abode 
in the loose, sandy 
ground, and when 
digging its hole re- 
sembles a dog dig- 




Fig. 213. —The Mud- wasp. 



ging after mice, throwing the earth under it toward its 
hind body Avith its fore feet. If the pile of sand be- 
comes too high or troublesome, it places itself upon it, 
and throws the earth belund it with great force until it 
is leveled. As soon as its subterranean abode is pre- 
j)ared, it seizes a large Spider, or a caterpillar, or some 
other insect, stings it in the neck, and then carries it into 
its hole. It is curious to see one of these Wasps take 
hold of a Cockroach, seizing it by one of its long anten- 
nae, and continually walking backward, compelling the 
Cockroach to follow, notwithstanding its great reluctance 
and constant opposition, until both have arrived at the 
hole, where the Wasp kills it by a sting in the neck, then 
tears into pieces, and carries it into her subterranean 
dwelling as food for her offspring." 

471. The family of Vespidae, or true Wasps, is distin- 
guished from the other Hymenoptera by the folding of 
the wings when at rest throughout their entire length. 
They are generally not solitary, but social, the communi- 
ties, however, being small. The neuters are not, like the 
neuters of the Ant tribe, destitute of wings. Those 
Wasps which are solitary have no neuters, and their hab- 
its are like the diggers just noticed. There are many 



276 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



species of the Social Wasps, the best known of which, as 
the common Wasp, build their nests of a stout brown 
paper, which they manufacture from bits of wood and 
bark. Like the paper-maker among men, they reduce 
their material to a pulp, and then spread it out thinly, 
which, drying speedily, becomes firm paper. In Fig. 
214 you see the arrangement of the nest of the Social 




Fig. 214. 

Wasps. Each floor of cells hangs from the floor above 
it by rods. At a a is the outer wall, made of many lay- 
ers of brown paper ; at h and c are five terraces of cells 
for the neuter Wasps ; and at d and e are 
three rows of larger cells for the males 
and females. In Fig. 215 is a representa- 
tion of a portion of one of these terraces, 
with its rod. 

472. The family Formicidse, or Ants, 
Fig. 215. are placed in a different order from the 




MEMBRAITE-WINGED ESTSECTS. 277 

White Ants, § 453, on account of the difference in the 
wings, those of the latter having the characteristic net- 
work of the ^NTeuroptera. They are distinguished from 
all the other families of the Hymenoptera by their re- 
siding under ground in large societies, some of them 
raising the earth up in mounds in constructing their 
habitations. The males and females, which alone are 
winged, constitute but a small portion of each commu- 
nity, most of it consisting of wingless neuters or la- 
borers. The different parts of the nest are very curi- 
ously and regularly arranged. The males and females 
leave the nest as soon as they have wings. The males 
die, and of the females some return and deposit their 
eggs in their original nest, while others go to a distance 
and found other colonies. When they begin to lay 
their eggs, as their destiny is now to stay in one place, 
they have no farther need of Avings, and therefore strip 
off themselves the useless encumbrances, or allow them 
to be stripped off by the neuters. These last not only 
construct the nest, but take care of the eggs, and also of 
the grubs that are hatched from them, feeding them, and 
carrying them on clear warm days to the outer surface 
of the nest, and taking them back again when night ap- 
proaches, or before that if there be a threatening of bad 
weather. Ants are very fond of saccharine matter, and 
accordingly are apt to find out where it is. They are 
also fond of some fruits. I have been amused to see 
how any pear in my garden, that chances, in falling, to 
have a breach made in the skin, is at once beset with 
Ants, who quite rapidly eat out the inside. 

473. In most cases a community of Ants consists only 
of three kinds of individuals — males, females, and neut- 
ers. But in some of the species some of the neuters are 
larger than the rest, and differently shaped, and appear 
to be the soldiers of the community, whose duties are 
the same with those of the soldiers among the Termites 
(§ 455). There are wars, sometimes, between different 



278 NATURAL HISTORY. 

communities among the Ants as well as among men, and 
some interesting descriptions have been given of their 
battles. But the most remarkable fact in the history of 
Ants is the propensity of certain species to kidnap the 
workers of other species and train them as their slaves. 
The kidnappers are always red or pale colored, while 
those which are made slaves are black. The slaves are 
not captured after they have become Ants, but when 
they are in the pupa state. The ant-heap is attacked by 
the marauders when the cells are filled with pupoe, and 
at no other time ; a sanguinary battle is the consequence ; 
and the Red Ants, being uniformly victorious, carry off 
the pupce to their own nest. Here the red workers take 
the same care of these pupao as they do of those belong- 
ing to their own community, and when the black work- 
ers come out from the pupa-cocoons, they very readily 
serve their captors. 

474. The insects of the Melliferous or honey-collecting 
division of the Aculeata are distinguished by a peculiar 
conformation of the hind feet. The first joint has the 
shape of a square plate, on the inside of which are hol- 
lows surrounded by brush-like tufts. In these baskets, 
as they may be called, the pollen of flowers is collected 
and carried to the nest. The insects of this division are 
all called Bees. Like the Wasps, they have two groups, 
the SoHtary and the Social. Of the Solitary Bees, some 
form burrows in the ground; others build several cells 
together, covering them with sand or small gravel united 
by their viscid saliva, and hence are called Mason Bees ; 
others excavate cells in dead wood, and are called Car- 
penter Bees ; and others still, the Upholsterer Bees, con- 
struct their nests from leaves, which they cut into the 
requisite shapes with great dexterity. 

415, Of the Social Bees there are two principal groups 
— ^the Bombi or Humble Bees, and the Hive Bees. The 
Humble Bees, of which there are many species, build 
their nests either under ground, or on the surface under 



ISIEMBKAXE-WIXGED IXSECTS. 



2'?9 



stones and other things. Then* communities consist of 
from fifty to three hundred Bees. They contain three 
lands of individuals — males, females, and neuters, of 
which the females alone Ik^e through the winter. There 
is a special provision for their preservation. They have 
a chamber distinct from the rest of the nest, and this is 
lined with grass and moss, so that they may sleej) there 
through the winter secure against the cold. 

4:16, In the Hive Bees, we see the instincts in con- 
struction and social organization exhibited in the most 
remarkable manner. A community of Hive Bees con- 
tains but a single perfect female, termed the Queen ; sev- 
eral hundred males, called Drones ; and about twenty 
thousand neuters, or Workers. In Fig. 216 you see the 
three kinds of Bees, the upper one being the Queen, a 
drone on the right, and a worker on the left. At the 




Fig. 216 Hive Bees. 

end of every summer, the Drones, which have no stings 
to defend themselves, are all stung to death by the Work- 
ers. The cells where the eggs are deposited are in the 
central part of each comb, this being, of course, the warm- 
est part of it. The Drones being larger than the Work- 
ers, those cells in which the eggs are to produce Drones 




280 NATURAL HISTORY. 

are made larger than the rest. Those that contain eggs 
from which Queens are to come are made much larger 
than any others, and of a different shape, as seen in Fig. 
217. If left to themselves, the Bees 
select the hollow of an old tree as 
the place to build their comb, but 
they readily go into the hives pro- 
vided for them by man. The comb 
ig. .— iojix ce s. jg made of wax, which is secreted 
from the body of the Bee, and appears in scales between 
the segments. This, with their mandibles, they mould, 
and apply it in the construction of the comb. The first 
swarm from a hive is led by the old Queen. Then there 
are successive swarms led by the young Queens. When 
the hive is sufficiently relieved of its surplus population, 
the Queens that remain fight till all are killed but one, 
and she takes possession of the throne. When the Bees 
lose their Queen, they, by a curious process, fill the va- 
cant throne. They select some one of the larvae which 
are to be Workers, and, enlarging its cell by the removal 
of the walls of the neighboring cells, thus make for it a 
suitably large royal apartment. They then feed it with 
the royal jelly ^ which is the exclusive food of the Queen- 
larvae, and, in due time, this larva, originally destined to 
be a worker, comes forth a queen. 

Questions. — What is said of the wings of the Hymenoptera ? What 
peculiarity is there in the females ? What is said of the instinct of 
the Hymenoptera ? What is said of their metamorphosis ? What 
of their lai'vae? What is said of the size of the Hymenoptera? Of 
their number ? Of their habits ? Of their usefulness to man ? 
What are the two groups of this order ? What is said of the Gall- 
flies ? What of the Oak-galls ? What of the gall of the wild rose ? 
What are the peculiarities of the Ichneumon family ? What is stated 
of those which have short ovipositors ? What is said of the Chrysi- 
didse ? What of the Saw-flies ? What are the families of the acu- 
leate group of the Hymenoptera? What is said of the Sand and 
Wood Wasps ? What of the Mud-wasp ? What of the Vespidge ? 
What is the arrangement of the nest of the social Wasp ? Describe 
the Ant communities. What is said of the neuters in some species ? 



SCALE-WINGED INSECTS. 



281 



What of the kidnapping Ants ? What are the peculiarities of the 
Melliferous division of the Aculeata ? What is said of the solitary 
Bees ? What of the social Bees ? What of the hive Bees ? What 
of their swarming ? 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

SCALE-WINGED INSECTS. 

477. The insects of the order Lepicloptera, or Scale- 
winged Insects, are characterized by the downy cover- 
ing of the wings, which is made up of a multitude of 
feather-scales. The number of these scales on the wings 
of the Silkworm Moth has been estimated at 400,000. 
The silvery dust that you have on your fingers when 
you touch a common Miller is a multitude of these 
scales. Each particle of that dust under the microscope 
appears a scale, Avith regular lines extending from its 
stem to its edge at the other end. When this scaly 
covering is rubbed off from the wing of one of these in- 
sects, the bare membrane which is left is seen to corre- 
spond with that of the wings of other insects. In some 
cases the scales are arranged with perfect regularity, 
§ 398. The shapes of them vary much in the different 
s^Decies, and there is often quite a variety in the same 
species in different portions of the wing, the long ones 
making the fringe at the edge. That you may have a 
correct idea of their general shape, I give, in Fig. 218, 




Fig. 218.— Feather Scales of the Goat-moth. 



282 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



the feather-scales of the Goat-moth. The delicate Imes 
on them are not represented. It is these scales various- 
ly colored that give such beauty to many of the insects 
of this order. Some of the Butterflies are especially 
brilliant. 

478. The insects of the orders already noticed are 
mandibulate, § 392. This order, and the others which 
remain to be noticed, are haustellate, § 393. The Lepi- 
doptera stand at the head of the haustellate group, as 
the Coleoptera, or Beetles, stand at the head of the Man- 
dibulata. The haustellum, or sucker, by which the in- 
sect drinks up the nectar of the flowers, is composed of 
two long fllaments, so shaped that, by joining them to- 
gether, they make a tube. You can see how accurately 
they must be made in order to do this. 

479. The larva? of the Lepidoptera are caterpillars. 
They have three pairs of legs on the first three segments 
of the body ; then they have some appendages called 
pro-legs^ which are thick, short, fleshy tubercles, with 
minute hooks around the edge of the under surface of 
them : there are usually five pairs of these, four of them 
in rear of the true legs, and another pair on the last seg- 
ment of the body. In Fig. 219 are represented a leg 




Fig. 219. — Leg and Pro-leg of a Caterpillar, greatly magnified. 



and a pro-leg, greatly magnified. The curved claws on 
the six legs of the caterpillars enable them to climb up 
readily on the threads from which they so often hang, 
and the pro-legs are of great assistance to them in walk- 



SCALE-WINGED INSECTS. 283 

ing and in adhering to branches of trees, or to any other 
soUd substance. Besides the little hooks on the pro-leg, 
the bottom of its foot is so arranged as to act as a sucker. 
The mode of walking or crawling is different in different 
caterpillars. Those which have pro-legs on nearly all 
the segments crawl on all the feet at once, moving the 
body straight along. Those which, on the other hand, 
have only a few pro-legs, manage in this way : making- 
firm hold with their six clawed legs, they bring the pro- 
legs, which are at the other extremity of the body, close 
up in rear of the true legs, thus arching the intermediate 
segments upward ; and now, holding on with their pro- 
legs, they thrust the anterior part of the body forward 
its full length. By a repetition of these movements they 
make a slow and measured progress. From this mode 
of walking such caterpillars are called loopers, or geom- 
eters, or measure-worms. Some caterpillars will stand 
for hours on the pro-legs in the rear part of the body, 
Avith the forward part of the body extending upward at 
right angles to this rear part. 

480. The food of caterpillars is, with few exceptions, 
vegetable. Some feed exclusively on one kind of plant, 
as the Silkworm on the mulberry; some feed on a cer- 
tain class of plants ; and others on almost any kind that 
they happen to find. Their hours of eating differ, some 
eating only in the morning and evening, some all day, 
and others only at night. All eat a great deal — some 
more than twice their weight in twenty-four hours. If 
all animals should do this, the eatables in the world would 
soon be devoured. The perfect insects eat but little, for 
they do not grow any larger than they were when they 
first emerged from the pupa state. The larvae, on the 
other hand, as they eat much, grow much also. 

481. Caterpillars are of great service in furnishing a 
very large proportion of the food of birds. " It is ascer- 
tained," says Jaeger, " that a single robin or woodpecker, 
and many others of the warblers, carry every day about 



284 NATURAL HISTORY. 

fifty grubs or caterpillars to their nests as food for them- 
selves and their young. Now, if there were only one 
million of these birds, of which each one devours 6000 
caterpillars in the months of April, May, June, and July 
(by no means a large computation), the number of cat- 
erpillars and grubs thus destroyed will amount to 
6,000,000,000 annually." 

482. Caterpillars are all spinners, the thread coming 
from a fleshy point in the under lip. Besides the em- 
ployment of this spinning machine in making the cocoon 
for the pupa state, many of them also use it as a means 
of escape from their enemies, letting themselves sudden- 
ly down by the thread they spin to a place of safety. If 
a bird espies one in a rolled-up leaf, he may not secure it, 
for, as he puts in his bill at one end, the caterpillar may 
escape at the other, dropping itself down quickly as far 
as it pleases. 

483. Most of the caterpillars are solitary in their hab- 
its, but some live in societies. This is the case with the 
Tent-caterpillars. These spin large tents of silk in the 
branches of trees, which are water-proof, although they 
are so slight in their appearance. They increase very 
fast, and, if let alone, colonies from the original commu- 
nity will spread their web-like tents in all parts of the 
tree. 

484. Of the caterpillars called Spanworms there are 
many species. The most conspicuous is what is common- 
ly called the Canker-worm, so destructive to many fruit 
and shade trees from devouring their leaves. These cat- 
erpillars finish their work of devastation in June, when 
they are only four weeks old, and descend by their silk- 
en cords to the ground, which they enter to the depth of 
several inches. Here they pass into the pupa state. In 
the autumn they issue from the ground in the imago 
state. The female is wingless, and therefore must climb 
up the trunk of the tree to lay her eggs on the branches, 
which she does in clusters of a hundred or more. There 



SCALE-WINGED INSECTS. 285 

they remain till spring, when the caterpillars are hatched 
from them. Various expedients have been devised for 
destroying the females as they go np the trees to lay 
their eggs. The most effectual one is that adopted so 
extensively in New Haven to save its noble elms. It is 
a leaden trough placed around the trunk of the tree in 
which there is some kind of oil. 

485. Professor Jaeger very playfully says of the habits 
of the perfect insects of this order that, " in comparison 
with the other orders of insects, they are well entitled to 
the rank of nobility, for among them we find no impu- 
dent beggars and spongers, as among the Flies ; no par- 
asites, as among the wingless insects ; no working-class, 
as among the Hymenopterous insects — Bees, Wasps, and 
Ants ; no musicians, as among the families of Crickets, 
Grasshoppers, Katydids, and Cicadas ; but all of them 
are aristocratic idlers, who, clothed with silver, gold, and 
purple, and ornamented with ever-varying splendor, have 
naught to do but seek their own pleasure, and charm 
away their brief existence, fluttering from bough to 
bough, and satiating themselves with the sweet nectar 
of flowers." 

486. We divide the Lepidoptera into two sections — 
the Butterflies and the Moths. The Butterflies may usu- 
ally be distinguished by the vertical position of their 
wings when they are at rest, and by their having the an- 
tennae slender, and club-shaped at the end. They are 
diurnal in their habits, and they are therefore brilliant, 
generally, in their colors. The under side of the wings 
is as beautiful as the upper. The pupae of many of this 
group have golden spots, from which the term chrysalis 
was suggested, and also aurelia, which is a Latin word 
of the same meaning with the former, which is Greek. 
These terms ought strictly to be applied only to the pupae 
of Butterflies, but they have come to be applied to pupae 
of all kinds. 

487. The Butterflies are divided into five families, ac- 



NATUKAL HISTOKY. 



cording to the shape of the wing. One of these famiUes, 
styled by Linnaeus Knights or Chevaliers, generally have 
a long, swallow-like tail at the extremity of the hind 
wings, as seen m the Troilus, Fig. 220. This Butterfly 




Fig. 220.— The Troilus. 

has black wings spotted wdth yellow. Its caterpillar is 
green, with a yellow strijDC on each side, and a row of 
blue dots, while the under side of its body and its feet 
are reddish. In this country it is more frequently seen 
m the Southern than in the ]^orthern States. The But- 
terfly called Berenice, Fig. 221, belongs to the family 
of Round-winged Butterflies. It was named after the 
wife of Antiochus, King of Syria, said to be the loveliest 
woman of her age. It is quite common with us. It has 
dark-red wings with black veins, and a black border wdth 
two rows of Avhite dots. The caterpillar is of a light vi- 
olet color, with brown, red, and yellow lines. 

488, The second section of the Lepidoptera, the Moths, 



SCALE- WINGED INSECTS. 287 




Fig. 221.— The Berenice. 

we divide into two groups, the Crepuscularia ( Crepus- 
cular twilight), Twilight-fliers, or Hawk Moths, and the 
Nocturna, or True Moths. Linnaeus called the Hawk 
Moths Sphinxes, from the peculiar attitude, resembling 
the sculptured Sphinx, so often assumed by the cater- 
pillars of these Moths. Most of the species in this genus 
are Twilight-fliers, but not all ; for some fly about in 
bright sunlight, sucking the nectar of flowers Avith their 
long trunks. These species are more brilliantly colored 
than the common species, which haA^e a dull brownish- 
gray aspect, like the owls, whose habits are similar. The 
larvae of the HaAvk Moths, on going into the pupa state, 
either inclose themselves in cocoons, or bury themselves 
in the ground. The perfect insects make a loud hum- 
ming sound in their flight. The Humming-bird Moth is 
one of the most beautiful of the diurnal species, and is 
remarkable for the loudness of the humming sound which 
it makes while feeding poised on its wings. 

489. The Nocturna, or True Moths, are by far the most 
extensive group of the order. They are much like most 
of the Sphinxes, but their antennae are very diflferent, be- 
ing broad at the base, and tapering to a point at the end. 
The Cecropia, Fig. 186, is one of the most splendid of 
these Moths. The SilkAVorm Moth belongs to this group ; 
so do all that variety of Moths, or Millers, that fly about 



288 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



our lights in a summer's evening. I have said so much of 
these insects in Chapter XXIII., that of the many families 
of them I will notice here but two. The Clothes Moths 
deposit their eggs in woolen stufls, furs, feathers, etc. 
Their larvae live on these articles. They also construct 
for themselves a tubular case from the same materials. 
In these they live, as the larvae of the Caddice-flies, § 459, 
do in their cases. With the growth of their bodies they 
enlarge these tubes by weaving an addition on to the 
end, and also by slitting it open and inserting a piece 
longitudinally. Sometimes these cases are of divers col- 
ors, from the use of differently-colored materials. When 
they are about to go into the pupa state, these insects 
close up the two ends of the case. 

490. There is a small 
Moth, called the Rusty 
Vapor Moth, Fig. 222, 





Fig. 223. — Caterpillar of Rusty Vapor Moth. 



Fig. 222.— The Rusty Vapor Moth. 

of a light-brown color. 
Though it is rather 
homely, it comes from 
a caterpillar which is 
very beautiful, repre- 
sented in Fig. 223. Its 
body is covered with 
long, fine yellow hairs, 
and has at each end two 
elegant brush-like tufts. 
Its head is as red as 
sealing-wax, and there 
are prominences on its 



HALF-WIJS^GED INSECTS. 289 

back of the same color. The motions of these caterpillars 
are very slow, and they eat but little. Commonly the 
perfect insect has more beauty than the larva from which 
it comes, but here we have an example of a contrary 
character. 

Questions. — Wliat characterizes the wings of the Lepidoptera? 
What is said of the shapes and arrangements of the scales ? Which 
are the Mandibulate orders of insects, and which are the Haustellate ? 
What is the construction of the haustellura of the Lepidoptera? 
What are the two kinds of legs of their larvae, and how are they used ? 
Describe the two modes of walking. What is the food of caterpil- 
lars ? What is said of the quantity which they eat ? How are cater- 
pillars of great service to us ? What is said of their spinning ? What 
is said of the Tent-caterpillars ? What of the Canker-worm ? What 
is said of the habits of the Lepidoptera ? How are the Butterflies 
distinguished from the Moths ? What is said of the pupae of the But- 
terflies? How many families are there of Butterflies ? What is said 
of the Troilus ? What of the Berenice ? What are the two groups 
of Moths ? What is said of the Crepuscular Moths ? What of the 
Humming-bird Moth? What of the Nocturnal Moths? What of 
the Clothes Moth? Wliat of the Rusty Vapor Moth and its larva ? 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

HALF-WINGED AND TWO-WINGED INSECTS. 

491. The msects of the order Hemiptera present many 
curious varieties. They agree, however, generally in the 
arrangement of the mouth, it being adapted to suction 
by a beak which is singularly constructed. It is a horny 
sheath, containing in a channel or groove four stiff bris- 
tles as sharp as needles. This instrument, which is thus 
fitted for both piercing and sucking, when not in use is 
bent under the body, and lies against the chest. This 
order is termed by some Rhynchota, from a Greek word, 
meaning beak. The food of these insects consists of the 
juices of plants in most cases, but in some of those of 
animals. They are called Hemiptera, half-winged, on 

N 



290 



NATURAL HISTOllY. 



account of the peculiar construction of their wing-cases, 
the fore part of which is thick and opaque, while the 
hinder half is thin and transparent. There are some 
which have the wing-covers transparent throughout, and 
some, also, that have no wrings — as Bedbugs; but, as 
both have the peculiar beak of this order, they are ranked 
here. 

492. The insects of this order do not appear first as 
caterpillars, like the Butterflies ; or as grubs, like the 
Beetles ; or as maggots, like the Bees and Flies. They 
come forth from their eggs in an almost perfect condi- 
tion, except that they are then w^ingless. The Cicadas, 
however, are an exception. They live in the larva state 
in the ground even for some years. I will notice a few 
of the i^rominent families of the order. 

493. Of the family of Cicadae, famous for their chirp- 
ing sounds, the Red-eyed Cicada, or Seventeen-years 
Locust, Fig. 224, is the one with which we are familiar. 




Fig. 224. — Red-eyed Cicada. 

The females deposit their eggs on the trees ; the larvae 
hatched from them descend and enter the ground, where 
they feed on roots. The change from larva to imago is 
efiected in this way. When this is about to take place, 
the grub comes up out of the ground, and, with its strong 
feet, fastens itself to a fence or the trunk of a tree. The 
back now gapes open, as seen in Fig. 225 (p. 291), and 
a winged insect comes forth, leaving the horny shell of 
its grub state clinging to the spot where the change 



HALF-WINGED INSECTS. 



291 





takes place. Sometimes the animal 
is not able to effect its exit, and dies 
in the struggle. These shells may 
often be found clinging to trees and 
fences in considerable numbers. It 
is supposed that the Seventeen-years 
Locusts really remain in their grub 
state under ground seventeen years, 
but Jaeger holds to the contrary. 

494. The Frog-hoppers are so call- 
ed from their great power of leaping. 

Fig. 225.-Grub of Cicada, rpj^^g^ ^f ^|^. ^ f^^-j^ ^^^^ familiar tO 

us are the Tree-hoppers, of which a specimen is given in 
Fig. 226. The thorax or chest of these insects 
is very large. They are commonly motionless 
for hours together ; but if they are disturbed, 
they make a sudden leap of two or three hund- 
Fig. 226.-The rcd tlmcs their own length, and, spreading out 
Tree-hopper, ^j^^j^ wlugs, fly off to somc othcr spot. The 
insects of this family are sometimes called Froth-hojDpers, 
from a frothy fluid which exudes from them. In some 
species, in tropical countries, this exudation is very abun- 
dant. 

495. The Aphidae, or Plant Lice, have small, round, 
full bodies, presenting different colors on different plants. 
Some have wings and some have not. They live in 
great numbers on the stalks and leaves of plants, sucking 
the sap with their beaks. The postures which they 
sometimes assume is very amusing. I saw the past 
summer in my garden some stalks of the wild Aster 
lined with them from top to bottom, and every one had 
its head do^vTiward. The hind legs did not touch the 
stalk at all, but were raised up, and the insects rested 
on the fore legs and the beak. Thus standing out, and 
being of a reddish color, they gave the appearance of or- 
namental appendages, until the eye was brought near 
enough to see what they were. 



292 NATUKAL HISTORY. 

496. On the back of these insects there project behind 
two tubes, from which issues a sweet fluid. Ants are 
very fond of this, and take it from the tubes as it exudes, 
or from the surface of the plants, Avhere it is known as 
honey-dew. The Aphides are, therefore, appropriately- 
called the milch-cows of the Ants. Some species of Ants 
even gather them into flocks, and keep them in a sort 
of pasture, as Ave do cows. 

497. The Scale-insects, though very small, are, like the 
Aphides, greatly injurious to plants. Like them, they 
are abundantly prolific, and when they once get posses- 
sion of a plant or young tree, it is almost certain to die, 
the minute size of the larva? of the insect rendering it 
almost impossible to find and exterminate them. The 
name Shield-louse, so often given to these insects, is de- 
rived from the appearance of the female, which, with its 
shield-shape, clings tightly to the plant, looking more 
like a wart than an animal. It lives on the sap, which it 
sucks with its beak or snout. It deposits eggs on the 
bark, covering them with a sort of cottony secretion. 
It then dies, and its dried body forms another covering 
for the eggs. The cochineal, so valuable to commerce, 
is a scale-insect. It is found chiefly in Mexico and Cen- 
tral America. It is estimated that the export of coch- 
ineal from these countries is to the amount annually of 
two and a half millions of dollars. This rich dyeing ma- 
terial was used for a long time without its being known 
what it was; and a French naturalist, in 1792, was uni- 
versally ridiculed for asserting that cochineal was an in- 
sect. It is gathered from cactus plants, which are large- 
ly cultivated in plantations for the purpose of raising this 
insect for the market. The lac of the East Indies, so ex- 
tensively employed in the composition of varnishes, seal- 
ing-wax, etc., is the product of another species of these 
insects. 

498. There are various bugs belonging to this order, 
in some of which the wrings are entirely absent. They 



TWO-WINGED INSECTS. 293 

are divided into two sections — Land-bugs and Water- 
bugs. To the former section belong the Bedbugs be- 
fore referred to. Of the Water-bugs there are only two 
families — the Boat-flies and the Water Scorpions. The 
former are good swimmers, always swimming on the 
back. They can fly well, but rarely do it. 

499. The Diptera, or two -winged insects, constitute 
one of the most extensive orders, both in the number of 
species and in the number of individuals. None of them 
are large, and some are exceedingly small. For the most 
part they are dull in color. On the head are two very 
large compound eyes, and two short antennae near to- 
gether. In some there is a soft proboscis, as the com- 
mon House-fly ; in others, a hard, pointed, sucking tube, 
as in the Musquito ; and in others still, simply a mouth. 
They have three pairs of feet, and two thin wings, which, 
in most cases, give out a humming sound in flying. 
Their larvae are generally maggots, white, and having 
no feet, but instead thereof fleshy tubercles or warts, on 
which they crawl. Most of the larvaB live in dirt, or 
dung-hills, or si^oiled meat, or cheese, etc. The meta- 
morphosis is complete, but in some cases very peculiar. 

500. The species of Flies are very numerous. There 
are about seventeen hundred known in Europe. The 
larvae of Flies, the maggots, generally live in some kind 
of filth ; but the Flies themselves live, for the most part, 
on dainty food. The wing of a common Fly, examined 
under the microscope, is a beautiful object. Although to 
the naked eye it has a very plain appearance, it is cover- 
ed with little pointed projections of curious shape regu- 
larly arranged. 

501. The larvae found in cheese come from eggs depos- 
ited by a small Fly. From their great power in leaping 
they are called Cheese-hoppers. The manner in which 
the leap is performed is very singular, and is thus de- 
scribed by Carpenter : " When preparing to leap, it first 
raises itself upon its tail, in which position it is enabled 



294 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



to balance itself by means of some prominent tubercles 
on the last segment of the body. It then bends itself 
into a circle, and having brought the head toward the 
tail, it stretches out the two hooks of the mouth, fixing 
them into two cavities at the other extremity of the body. 
It then contracts the body from a circular to an oblong 
iigure — the contraction extending in a manner to every 
part of the body. It now suddenly lets go its hold, and 
straightens the body with such violence that the noise 
l)roduced by its hooks is very perceptible. The height 
of the leap is often from twenty to thirty times the length 
of the body, exhibiting an energy of motion which is par 
ticularly remark;^ble in the soft larva of an insect. A 
Viper, if endowed with similar powers, would throw it/ 
self nearly a hundred feet from the ground." 




Fi^^. 22T Wriggler. 



TWO-WINGED INSECTS. 



295 



502. The Musquito family are remarkable in many re- 
spects, but chiefly for the peculiar mode of their meta- 
morphosis. The common Musquito, when first hatched, 
is an inhabitant of the water, and is, from its antic and 
rapid motions, called a Wriggler. In Fig. 227 you see 
the animal of its natural size, and also as it looks when 
magnified. Though it lives in the water, it is not like a 
fish, for it has no gills. It is more like a whale, for it is 
obliged to come occasionally to the surface to breathe. 
Its breathing apparatus is near its tail. The air is taken 
in through a tube made of hairs, represented at A. After 
the insect arrives at its jDroper size it comes to the sur- 
face with its back upward, which gapes open, as in the 
case of the Cicada (§493), and the winged insect emerges, 
as seen in an enlarged representation in Fig. 228. It 




Fig. 22S. 



rests upon its cast-off skin as a boat, while it unfolds and 
expands its wings, and then flies off. Great care is re- 
quired in this operation, as there is danger that the in- 



296 NATURAL HISTORY. 

sect will be i^lunged into the water before it expands its 
wings. 

503. The eggs of the Musquito are deposited on the 
surface of stagnant water to the number of about tln^ee 
Inmdred, fastened together as you see in Fig. 229. They 
thus make a sort of raft Avhich swims on the surface. 




Fig. 229. 

The large ends of the eggs are downward, and it is out 
of these that the larva) come, diving down into the Ava- 
ter. There is a lid at the blunt end of the egg which is 
opened to let the larva out. Some S2)ecies do not have 
this mode of arranging their eggs. 

504. The proboscis which is visible to us, and which 
the insect so deliberately adjusts upon the skin when it 
alights, is not the stinging aj^jDaratus, but the sheath or 
scabbard of it. It incloses some bristles with lancet- 
shaped points. When the skin is pierced by these, the 
blood is sucked up through the sheath. It is supposed 
that the irritation attending the bite is occasioned by the 
saliva of the insect introduced into the wound to dilute 
the blood that it may more readily be sucked up. In 
Fig. 230 you have at A the sheath closed, both of the 
natural size and magnified. In the lower figure you have 
the whole instrument opened — at B the sheath, at C 
three lancets, and at T> protectors. At F you see these 
parts of their natural size. This is the arrangement of 
the proboscis of the common American Musquito. It is 
different, however, in the difierent species of this insect. 

505. The different species of Musquitoes, of which 
there are many, are quite widely diffused in the earth. 



TWO-WINGED INSECTS. 



297 




Fig. 280. 

They are generally most troublesome in warm climates, 
and in the tropics they are present throughout the year. 
But there are some cold countries in which, during their 
brief but hot summers, they are not only extremely an- 
noying, but occasionally very destructive. This is the 
case with parts of Russia, both in Europe and in Asia. 
Even such animals as horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and 
hogs, are so severely stung by them as to die, some meet- 
ing their death by drowning, having run into water to 
escape the swarms of their small but formidable enemies. 
At some periods it seems in that country to be the grand 
business of life to devise and put in execution expedients 
for guarding man and beast aQ:ainst these insects. 

y^ 2 



298 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




506. The insects of the order Aplianiptera, the Fleas 
and their aUies, have only the most indistinct rudiments 
of wings ; but the metamorphosis is complete. The lar- 
vae inclose themselves in small silk cocoons to pass into 
V-, Ns, ^^ the ima2:o state. The 

common Flea, a mag- 
nified representation of 
which is given in Fig. 
231, has a curious aj)- 
paratus for sucking 
blood, which is very 
beautiful as examined 
with a microscope. 
This insect, like other 
great leapers, as Grasshoppers, Frog -hoppers, etc., has 
very large hind legs. 

507. In the order Apte- 
ra, or wingless insects, are 
found the different kinds of 
Lice which infest different 
animals. In Figure 232 is 
represented the common 
3 Louse; at a of the ordinary 
size, at h magnified. At c 
is one of its legs magnified ; 
at d are its eggs, also mag- 
nified. 



rig. 231.— Fiea. 




Louse. 



Questions. — What is said of the haustellate apparatus of the Hemip- 
tera ? What gives them their name ? What is said of their meta- 
morphosis ? How are the Cicadas an exception to this ? What is 
said of the Red-eyed Cicada ? What of the Frog-hoppers ? De- 
scribe the Aphid^e and their habits. What is said of their honey- 
dew ? What is said of the scale-insects ? What of Cochineal ? 
What is said of some aberrant bugs of this order ? What is said of 
the extent of the order Diptera ? What of the size of these insects ? 
What are their peculiarities ? What is said of their larvae ? What 
is said of Flies ? What are Cheese-hoppers ? Describe their mode 
of leaping. Describe the larvse of the common Musquito. Describe 



THE ARACHXIDA. 299 

its metamorphosis. What is said of its eggs ? Describe the arrange- 
ment of the proboscis. What is said of the Musquitoes in various 
regions of the earth ? What is said of the order Aphaniptera ? What 
of the order Aptera ? 



CHAPTER XXX, 

THE AEACHISIDA. 



508. The second class of the Articulata is that of the 
Myriapocla, the Centipedes, § 388. This I will not dwell 
upon, but will pass directly to the third class, the Arach- 
nida. This class was for a long time included among the 
Insects, and Spiders are very generally spoken of now, 
in common conversation, as belonging to that class ; but 
the Arachnida differ from Insects in several important 
particulars. The head of Insects is distinct from the 
chest, but in the Arachnida the head and chest are united 
in one ; and this is called the cephalo-thorax. Insects in 
their perfect state have but six legs, but the Arachnida 
have eight. The Arachnida have not the compound 
eyes of Insects. Again, the antenna? of Insects are want- 
ing in the Arachnida. 

509. The Arachnida are carnivorous ; but generally, 
instead of eating their prey, they suck the juices from 
their bodies. Many of them have a poison apparatus, 
by which they can destroy more readily those \dctims 
whose strength would otherwise be too much for them. 
They have mandibles and pincers very much like those 
of insects. In those which are parasitical — that is, those 
which dwell on other animals — the mouth has the form 
of a trunk or proboscis armed with a kind of lancet. The 
Scorpions have a curved and pointed instrument at the 
end of the tail, as seen in Fig. 233 (p. 300). They have 
large claws, like those of the Lobster, with which they 
seize their victims, and then pierce them with this curved 
sting, which is armed with poison from a gland. 




300 NATURAL HISTORY. 

510. The class of 

Arachnida is divided 

into two groups. In 

the first group the 

/;>7^y '^fB ^^ iflSKKKKK^^IlSf^ respiratory organs 

' "^ ' are difierent from 
those of Insects. In- 
stead of passages ev- 
Fig.233.-The Scorpion. ery where for air, 

there are some sac or bag like cavities in the abdomen, 
and in these are thin membranous plates arranged Hke 
the leaves of a book. The air goes in among these, and 
acts on the blood in the vessels spread out on them. 
This group includes the Spiders and Scorpions. In the 
second group the respiratory apparatus is like that of 
Insects. This includes Mites of various kinds. Father- 
long-legs, the minute red Spiders of green-houses, etc. 

511. Most of the true Spiders are great spinners. They 
do not spin for themselves a cocoon as the caterpillars 
do, for they undergo no metamorphosis. They spin chief- 
ly for tAVO purjDoses — to construct a dwelling for them- 
selves, and to construct traps to catch their prey. Some 
also, like some of the caterpillars, spin as they drop to 
escape their enemies, and thus save themselves from a 
fall. Some throw out a long thread into the air from 
their spinning machine, and let it, when it is of sufficient 
length, bear them aloft like a balloon. And some spin a 
cocoon in which they deposit their eggs. I found one 
of these cocoons the past summer fastened to the bark 
of a tree. I opened it, and it was all a moving mass 
within. On looking at it with a pocket microscope, I 
found that it was full of little Spiders, which probably 
liad just been hatched from the eggs, but were not yet 
ready to come out. The manner in which the cocoon is 
formed and filled with eggs is curious. The Spider first 
spins the lower half of it, and into this silken cup it drops 
the eggs. It not only fills it, but piles up eggs on top 



THE AEACHNIDA. 



301 



with great care, so that there are as many above as in 
the cup. It then finishes spinning the cocoon. 

512. The Caterpillars spin from the head, but the Spi- 
der spins from the other extremity of the body. Its spin- 
ning apparatus is of pecuhar construction. Inside is a 
reservoir of gummy matter from which the silk is made. 
The threads of a Spider's web are drawn out from it, 
andv dry as fast as they are drawn. But the thread, which 
appears to the eye as single, is found by the microscope 
to be composed of many thousands of threads united to- 
gether. In Fig. 234 you see, as the Spider hangs by his 

thread, that it comes 
out from a circular 
spot. In this are four 
and sometimes six 
knobs, which can be 
seen by the naked eye. 
Each of these is full of 
holes through which 
the threads come, and 
these holes are so mi- 
nute that Reaumur cal- 
culated that a thou- 
sand occupied a space 
no larger than the 
point of a pin. In Fig. 
235 (p. 302) is repre- 
sented such a view of 

these knobs as you would get by a powerful microscope. 

A portion only of the minute threads are represented. 

It was the calculation of Leuwenhoeck that it would 

take four millions of them to make a thread as large as a 

hair. 

513. These threads are united together about one tenth 
of an inch in distance from the spinnerets. By this sep- 
arate exposure to the air of each threadlet, they aU be- 
come drv before their union. Another advantas:e of this 




Fig. 234. 



no2 



NATURAL IIISTOKY. 




aiTanQ:ement is tlie securiiis: 
of greater strength to the 
thread, for it is well known 
in rope-making that, in cords 
of equal thickness, those 
which are composed of many 
smaller cords are stronger 
than those which are spun 
at once. Another advant- 
age still is, that these minute 
threadlets can be better at- 
tached to an ob- 
ject than a single 
thread. When 

Fig. 235. — Spider's Threads coming from - o -t i 

the Spinneret,''. the Spider makes 

an attachment of his thread, he presses the spin- 
nerets against the spot selected, and thus fast- 
ens the ends of the threadlets projecting from 
the holes over quite a space. This is seen in 
Fig. 236, which represents an attachment of 
this kind, as seen with the microscope. ^'^- '^^^' 

514. The foot of a Spider, a magnified view of which 

is given in Fig. 237, 
has three claws, one 
of which acts as a 
sort of thumb, and 
the others are tooth- 
ed as a comb. It is 

Fig. 237.— Triple-claAved Foot of a Spider, mag- SUpjDOSCd that thcse 

^^^^^' combs are used in 

preventing tangling of the threads in the web, and also 
in removing any particles that may become attached to 
it. When a Spider has let itself down from any place 
by its thread, if it goes up again upon it, it gathers up 
the thread into a ball with its claws and throws it away. 
So, also, if any part of its web is rendered useless by any 
thing which becomes attached to it, it is separated from 





THE ARACHNIDA. 303 

the rest, collected into a packet, and cast off. Mr. Ren- 
nie, the author of a very interesting book on insect arch- 
itecture, describes a process of this kind which he ob- 
served on board of a steam-boat. It was a geometric 
Spider, that is, one that forms its w^eb of regular circular 
lines. The web or net was covered with flakes of soot. 
" Some of the lines," he says, " she dexterously stripped 
of the flakes of soot adhering to them ; but in the greater 
number, finding that she could not get them sufficiently 
clean, she broke them quite off, bundled them up, and 
tossed them over. We counted five of these packets of 
rubbish which she thus threw aw^ay, though there must 
have been many more, as it was some time before we 
discovered the manoeuvre, the packets being so small as 
not to be readily perceived, except when placed between 
the eye and the light. When she had cleared off all the 
sooted lines, she began to replace thein in the usual 
way." 

515. Many observations have been made, and experi- 
ments tried, to determine how Spiders transport them- 
selves from tree to tree, across brooks, or even sometimes 
through the air, without any visible starting-point. The 
subject is not entirely cleared up, but it is well ascer- 
tained that they spin out the thread, letting the wind 
take it, trying it occasionally with the feet to decide 
Avhether the farther end has attached itself to any object. 
So soon as the Spider finds by pulling on it that it is 
fastened, it runs along upon it, strengthening its cable 
by spinning another as it goes. Spiders have not, as 
some have supposed, the power of projecting their lines 
in opposition to the moving air, but they uniformly put 
their bodies in such position that the line may go with 
the air, that is with the head toward the direction from 
which the breeze comes. They watch the wind as much 
as the sailor does. The little gossamer Spiders let their 
lines, like balloons, carry them off into the air, breaking 
loose from the objects on which they stand when they 



304 NATUEAL HISTORY. 

feel themselves acted upon by a force sufficient for that 
purpose. They may thus be seen mounting aloft from 
the tops of twigs and blades of grass, from fences, etc. 

516. The architecture of Spiders has considerable va- 
riety. That of the house Spider and that of the com- 
mon geometric Spider are familiar to every one. That 
of the labyrinthic Spider is very curious. Its nest may 
be seen spread out a broad sheet on hedges, furze, low 
bushes, and sometimes on the ground. "The middle 
of this sheet," says Rennie, " which is of a close texture, 
is swung, like a sailor's hammock, by silken ropes extend- 
ed all around to the higher branches; but the whole 
curves upward and backward, sloping downward to a 
long funnel-shaped gallery which is nearly horizontal at 
the entrance, but soon winds obliquely till it becomes 
quite perpendicular. This curved gallery is about a 
quarter of an inch in diameter, is much more closely 
woven than the sheet part of the web, and sometimes 
descends into a hole in the ground, though oftener into 
a group of crowded twigs or a tuft of grass. Here 
the Spider dwells secure, frequently resting with her 
legs extended from the entrance of the gallery, ready 
to spring out upon Avhatever insect may fall into her 
sheet-net." 

517. There are some species of sjDiders that build their 
nests of clay, which they knead into due shape, and 
hence are called Mason Spiders. There is one of these 
found in the West Indies. This Spider digs a hole ob- 
liquely in the earth about three inches deep and one inch 
in diameter, the walls of it being made of clay. This 
cavity it lines with a thick web, which, when taken out, 
resembles a leathern purse. This tapestried chamber 
has a very singular door. It is made of about a dozen 
layers of this same lining, closely united together, and 
has a hinge of the same material. In Fig. 238 (p. 305) 
is represented the nest of another Mason Spider found 
in France, A being the nest shut, and B the nest open; 



THE AKACHXIDA. 

A.. 



305 




Fig. 238. — Nest of a Mason Spider. 

C the Spider, D the eyes magnified, and E and F parts 
of the foot and claw magnified. 

518. There is a Spider common in the woods that 
weaves together a great many leaves for a dwelling, and 
in front of this spreads its snares to catch its prey. When 
winter approaches it leaves its eggs in this nest to be 
liatched the following spring, and itself retires to some 
hollow tree to die. 

519. An English clergyman, Mr. Shepherd, has often 
seen in the fen ditches of Norfolk a very large Spider 
that makes a raft by fastening weeds together with silk- 
en threads, and sails forth on this in search of insects that 
may chance to get into the water. But the most inter- 
esting water-spider is one that makes for itself a silken 
diving-bell, which looks in the water like a little silver 
globe. This is sometimes partly above the sm-face of the 
water, but at others it is fastened by silken ropes to ob- 
jects below. The Spider contrives in some way to carry 



306 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



air down to its diving-bell, coming up every now and 
then to the surface for this purpose. 

520. I have already said enough of the Scorpions 
(§ 509), and on the second group of the Arachnida I will 
spend but a few words. Among the Mites is the animal 
which occasions the disease called the itch, an enlarged 
representation of which you have in Fig. 239. It has an 
oval body, a mouth armed with 
bristles, and eight feet, four of 
which have suckers at the end. 
There is a great variety of mites 
which are found on plants and an- 
imals, and some live in the water, 
swimming about with great free- 
dom. The scarlet Mite of our gar- 
dens has a most brilliant scarlet 
color. The Harvest-men, so ap- 
propriately called Father-long-legs, 
as they have, perhaps, longer legs 
than any other animal of any kind, 
are mostly very agile. The Book 
Scorpions, so called, are little 
Arachnida which inhabit herbariums, old books, etc. 
They are good runners, often going sidewise like crabs, 
and they hunt the minute insects which are found in such 
situations. 




Fig. 239. — Sarcoptes Scabiei, 
or Acarus of the Itch. 



Questions. — How do the Arachnida differ from insects? What is 
said of their food ? What of their means of killing their prey ? What 
is said of those which are parasitical ? What is said of the Scor- 
pions ? What are the two groups of the Arachnida ? What are the 
two chief purposes for which Spiders spin ? What other purposes are 
sometimes accomplished by it ? What is said of the cocoons which 
some Spiders spin? Describe the spinning apparatus of Spiders. 
What is said of the compound character of the Spider's thread ? Why 
is it not spun whole ? What is said of the mode of its attachment ? 
Describe the foot of a Spider. What is the use of the combs in it ? 
Describe its mode of repairing its web. What is known of the man- 
ner in which Spiders transport themselves from one spot to another 



CRUSTACEANS. 307 

by their threads ? What is said of the Gossamer Spiders ? Describe 
the architecture of the Labyrinthic Spider. What is said of the Mason 
Spiders ? What of the Spider that weaves leaves together ? What 
of the Spider that builds a raft ? What of the Diving-bell Spider ? 
What are some of the Arachnida of the second group ? What is said 
of the Mites ? What of the Harvest-men ? What of the Book Scor- 
pions ? 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

CRUSTACEANS, AND THE WORM AND LEECH TRIBE. 

521. The class of the Articulata called Crustacea has 
its name from the Latm word crusta^ a crust or shell. 
It includes Lobsters, Crabs, Prawns, Shrimps, Sowbugs, 
Sand-fleas, Barnacles, etc. Lobsters and Crabs are the 
most perfect animals of the class. 

522. There is considerable resemblance to insects, and 
also to Spiders, in most of these animals. Like the In- 
sects, they may be divided into two groups — the mandi- 
bulate and the haustellate. The eyes of the Crustacea 
are generally compound, like those of the Insects. They 
have also antenna?. But the Crustacea difler from in- 
sects in the character of their respiratory apparatus. 
They are aquatic animals, and breathe by gills. There 
are a few species that are formed to live in air. The 
Land Crabs, found mostly in the Antilles, are an exam- 
ple. In them there is, above the gills, a spongy appara- 
tus, from which continually exudes a moisture that keeps 
the gills from becoming dry. 

523. The legs of the Crustacea often amount to seven 
pairs, as in the Woodlouse and Sandhopper ; but in oth- 
er cases there are five pairs, as in the Crab. The legs 
are constructed very difierently in the various Crustacea, 
according to the manner in which they are to be used. 
In some they are leaf-like membranes, being thus fitted 
for swimming ; in others they are columns jointed to- 
gether, to be used only in walking ; in others they are so 



308 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



shaped as to be fitted for digging as well as walking ; 
and in others still they are armed with pincers, so as to 
be instruments of prehension as well as locomotion. In 
those Crustacea that swim, as Lobsters, Prawns, etc., 
the abdomen generally ends in a large fin-like exjoansion, 
which works up and down in swimming like the tail of 
the Whale. But in those which are to walk rather than 
swim, as the Crab, this i)art is small, and is bent up un- 
derneath. 

524. All Crustacea come from eggs. The eggs are 
commonly carried about adhering to the under part of the 
abdomen. This we often see in the Lobster. In a boil- 
ed Lobster they are red, and the mass is called the cor- 
al. More than twelve thousand eggs have been found 
attached to the abdomen of a single Lobster. 

525. There is not generally any true metamorphosis in 
this class. But in some, the animal, when first born, is 
entirely unlike the perfect animal. This is the case with 

the common Crab. In Fig. 240 you 
see a representation of the Crab when 
it first issues from the egg. The 
large figure is a magnified represent- 
ation, the natural size being given on 
the little scroll at the side of it. This 
is almost as unlike the mature Crab 
as the larva of the Musquito is unlike 
the Musquito itself (§ 502). 

526. In most of the Crustacea there 
is manifest the ring -like arrange- 
ment of segments which is so char- 
acteristic of the Articulata (§ 381). 
But in some it is so much modified 
as not to be apparent without partic- 
Thus, in the Crab, as we look on its 
broad carapace of shell, the ring-like arrangement seems 
to be entirely forsaken ; but on examining closely, we 
find that this carapace is only an excessive enlargement 




Fig. 240.— Early form of 
the Crab. 

nlar observation. 



CEUSTACEANS. 309 

of one ring encroaching on the others which are still 
there, although of very small size. We see here the 
same disposition to have a general plan that we see ev- 
ery where in the structm^es of nature. A type is always 
adopted, and Ave see traces of this in the widest varia- 
tions from it. 

527. The covering of the Crustacea, which is their 
skeleton, is commonly quite hard, being made so by the 
carbonate of lime, of which it is in part composed. As 
this can not grow with the other parts, it must be shed 
from time to time, and a new and larger covering be 
formed. The manner in which the old shell is got rid of 
is very singular. At the proper time there is effected a 
separation between all parts of the animal and the shell. 
Then the shell gapes open at some part, and the animal 
works itself out. This opening, in the case of the Lob- 
ster, is down through the middle line of the back. The 
animal, on emerging, crawls into some by-place where it 
may be secure, and remains quiet for a day or two till a 
new shell is formed. The material is supplied from the 
blood, just as the material for our internal skeleton is 
supplied from our blood. 

528. The Crustacea are divided into fourteen orders. 
Of these I will notice only a few. 

529. The Decapoda, or Ten-footed Crustacea, include 
the Lobsters, Crabs, Crayfish, Prawns, Shrimps, etc. 
Nearly all the Crustacea that are used as food are con 
tained in this order. One marked peculiarity of this 
group is the situation of the eyes on the ends of foot- 
stalks. The habits of most of these animals are aquatic ; 
but the gills are inclosed in such a way that they do not 
soon become dry when the animals are in the air, and 
hence they live for some time after being taken out of 
the w^ater. They are carnivorous and very voracious ; 
and the first pair of legs are made into powerful claws, 
by which they seize their food and convey it to the 
mouth. The mouth itself is quite a complicated appara- 



310 



NATUKAL HISTORY. 



tus, there being three pairs of jaws. I have ah'eady said 
enough of the Lobsters and Crabs. The Shrimps and 
Prawns are quite small animals, regarded as great deli- 
cacies. In Fig. 241 the ShrimjD is above and the Prawn 
below. 




Fig. 2-11. — Shrimp and Prawn. 

530. The Hermit Crabs, Fig. 242, are very peculiar 
both in their conformation and their habits. The crus- 

taceous covering in the 
case of these animals is 
confined to the upper part 
of the body. The lower 
part of the body, being 
uncovered, needs protec- 
tion, and the animal se- 
cures this by inserting its 
tail into some empty shell 
which it finds. This it 
drags about with it as it 
wanders in search of its 
food. When it is alarmed, 
it withdraws itself wholly 
into its portable house, closing the mouth of the shell 
with one of its claws. As it grows it is obliged to seek 




Fig. 242.— Hermit Crab. 



CRUSTACEANS. 



311 



a larger shell, and it is amusing to see one trying one 
shell after another to find one which will fit. 

531. In the order of Loemodipoda, 
or jaw-footed Crustacea, is the Whale 
Louse, Figure 243, which clings by its 
strong claws to the body of the Whale. 
So completely is the Whale sometimes 
covered by these parasites, that a white 
color is given to its skin, which can be 
seen at some distance. 
532. The order of Cirrhipoda, or tufted-footed Crusta- 
cea, contains the Barnacles, Fig. 244, and their allies. The 




Fig. 243.— Whale 
Louse. 




Fi^. 2:4. — Barnacles. 



Barnacle looks like a mussel-shell fixed to a long stem ; 
but, on exammation, it is found that the shell consists 
of five pieces, and through the opening project seven 
pairs of arms or cirrhi. Two of these are of considerable 
size, and have suckers on the end, by which they can 
hold on to any thing. The other six pairs are fringed 
Avith cilia, or hair-like filaments, which, by their contin- 
ual motion, produce currents in the water. This serves 
both to bring minute animals, constituting the food of 
the Barnacle, within the reach of the arms, and to move 
the water over the gills. The animal has jaws which 
take and masticate the food brought to it by the arms. 
In Fig. 245 (p. 312) is a Barnacle with the shell partly 
removed, to show all the parts of the animal. It is al- 
ways found adhering by the stem to floating wood or 



312 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 245.— Body of 
the Barnacle. 



the hull of a ship. In being inclosed 
in a shell it is like the MoUusca, and 
was formerly supposed to belong to 
that sub-kingdom; but the construc- 
tion of the animal itself manifestly 
places it among the Crustaceans. 

533. To this order belong also the 
little Acorn-shells, so called, which are 
found on the sea-shore in abundance 
adhering to rocks, shells, etc. 

534. The class of Annelida, the Worm 
and Leech tribe, is one of the lower 
classes of the Articulata. The animals 

belonging to it have no articulated members, and there 
is in them a general inferiority of structure. Still, the 
lateral symmetry so characteristic of the Articulata, 
§ 387, is retained in them. The two halves of the body 
are alike. The body is commonly long, slender, and 
more or less cylindrical. The division into segments, 
manifest in most of the Articulata, is in this class more 
manifest internally than externally, it being marked ex- 
ternally only by a w^rinkling of the skin. 

535. The class is divided into four orders, which I will 
briefly notice. The first is that of the Dorsi-branchiata 
{dorsion^ back, and hranchia^ gill), having the gills ar- 
ranged in tufts along the length of the body. The ani- 
mals belonging to this order both crawl and swim with 
facility. In tropical climates there are some large spe- 
cies, measuring even four feet, and having the body di- 
vided into four or five hundred segments. The Sea-cen- 
tipede, the Sea-mouse, and the Lob-worm belong to this 
order. 

536. The second order is that of the Tubicola, so 
called because the animals live in tubes. One of the 
most common is the Serpula, one species of which is 
represented in Fig. 246 (p. 313). These animals live in 
shell tubes, attached in groups to stones, shells, and other 



THE WORM AND LEECH TEIBE. 



313 




Fig. 246. — Group of Serpulae. 



bodies. The shell is exuded from 
the body of the animal just as the 
covering of a Crustacean is. In 
the figure one of the animals is 
stretched up out of its shell, spread- 
ing forth its delicate gill -tufts 
which are arranged around its 
head. It can withdraw itself en- 
tirely within the tube, and when 
it does so there is a provision for 
shutting it up. You see that one 
of the long filaments is expanded 
at the end into a flat, circular disk. 
This is the door which shuts down 
on the mouth of the tube after the 
other filaments are all drawn in. 

537. There are other animals of this group which, in- 
stead of having a tubular shell exude from their bodies, 
form one by connecting together, with a gummy sub- 
stance from the mouth, particles of shell, sand, small peb- 
bles, etc. They are in this respect like the larvae of the 
Caddice-fly, § 459. The Terebella, Fig. 247, does this. 

It is here represented 
with its tentacula ex- 
tending out from the 
tube. These are used 

Fig.247.-TerebeUamitsTube. ^ gathering itS food. 

If you take a Terebella, and, breaking up its tube care- 
fully, get the animal in its naked state, you can, by 
placing it in some moist sand, see the process by which 
it forms a new tube. In doing this it takes each grain 
into its mouth, and then, turning its head backward, 
places it in its proper position. 

538. The third order is that of the Terricola, so called 
because they live in the earth. The Earthworm works 
through the ground by insinuating its pointed head be- 
tween the grains of dirt, pushing itself forward by some 

O 




314 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



little bristly j^oints which all look backward. There are 
four pairs of them on each segment. It is on account of 
these that, while you can pass the finger readily on the 
worm backward, you can feel resistance on attempting 
to pass it forward. There are two sets of muscles en- 
gaged in the movement of the worm — the one longi- 
tudinal, which, on contracting, short- 
en the worm; and the other circu- 
lar, which make the body smaller 
and longer when they contract. In 
Fig. 248 is a representation of an 
Earthworm at a, and at 6 a few seg- 
ments magnified, so as to show the 
bristles pointing backward. The 
egg of the Worm is curiously con- 
structed, having a valve at one end, 
as seen at c. At d the yoimg Avorm 
has opened the valve, and is coming 
out. These worms are of great serv- 
ice to the farmer and gardener in 
loosening the earth below the reach 
of the spade and the plow. " It has 
been lately shown," says Carpenter, 
" that they will even add to the depth 
of soil, covering barren tracts with 
a layer of productive mould. Thus, 
in fields which have been overspread 
with lime, burned marl, or cinders, 
these substances are in time covered 
with finely-divided soil, well adapted to the support of 
vegetation. That this result — which is commonly at- 
tributed to the 'working down' of the materials in 
question — is really due to the action of the Earthworms, 
appears from the fact that in the soil thus formed large 
numbers of ' worm-casts' may be distinguished. These 
are produced by the digestive process of the worms, 
which take into their intestinal canal a large quantity of 




Fig. 248. — Lumbricus Ter- 
restris, or Earthworm. 



THE WOKM AND LEECH TRIBE. 315 

the soil through which they burrow, extract from it the 
greater part of the decaying vegetable matter it may 
contain, and reject the rest in a finely-divided state. In 
this manner a field manured with marl has been covered, 
in the course of eighty years, with a bed of earth aver- 
aging thirteen inches in thickness." 

539. The order Suctoria includes the Leech and its al- 
lies. The Leech is shaped much like the Earthworm, 
but has a very different mouth, and a different apparatus 
of locomotion. It has a sucker at each end of its body, 
and walks quite fast by fixing the anterior sucker, and 
then moving the posterior one up to it, and throwing the 
whole body forward from this. Its mode of walking is 
much like that of the Measure-worms (§ 479), though 
its instruments for attachment are different. It can also 
swim very well by a waving motion of the whole body. 
Its mouth is in the middle of the cavity of the anterior 
sucker. In it are three semicircular saws, which make 
the bite of the Leech. They are so arranged that they 
work from a central point outward, and make a wound 
of this ^ shape. The wound behig made, the blood is 
drawn out by the sucker. 

540. The sixtli class of the Articulata, that oftheEnto- 
zoa, includes worms that live in the bodies of various an- 
imals, man among the rest. I Avill notice of this class 
only those very singular animals which appear to us like 
long horse's hairs, and are called Hairworms. We see 
them in stagnant water or in moist places ; but they are 
really inhabitants of the bodies of various insects, and 
only resort to the water to lay their eggs. If taken from 
the water and left to dry, they become stiff, horny threads, 
and appear to have no life ; but put them into water again, 
and they are soon restored to activity. 

541. The remaining class, that of the Rotifera, or 
Wheel Animalcules, contains animals of very minute size, 
some of them being less than the five hundredth part of 
an inch in length. Their structure, which is very won- 



316 NATURAL HISTORY. 

derful, can only be seen by the microscope ; and this, 
from their transparency, is easily done. They are most- 
ly aquatic animals, and have one or two rows of cilia, or 
hair-like filaments. It is the motion of these that gives 
the apparent wheel-like rotation from whence their name 
is derived. 

Questions. — What does the claSvS Crustacea include? What gives 
them their name ? In what respects are they like insects ? In what 
element do most of them live ? What peculiar provision is there in 
one of the exceptions to this? What is said of the legs of the Crus- 
tacea ? What of their metamorphosis ? What of their ring-like ar- 
rangement ? What of the composition of their covering ? What is 
the necessity of its being shed from time to time ? Describe the man- 
ner in which this is done in the Lobster. How many orders have the 
Crustacea? What animals are included in the order Dccapoda? 
What are their peculiarities? What is said of the Shrimps and 
Prawns ? What of the Hermit Crabs ? What of the Whale Louse ? 
To what order belong the Barnacles and the Acorn-shells ? Describe 
the construction and habits of the Barnacle. What are the charac- 
teristics of the class Annelida ? How many orders has it ? What is 
said of the order Dorsi-branchiata ? What gives the name to the Tu- 
bicola? What is said of the Serpula? What of the Terebella? 
W^hat is said of the order Terricola ? What of the eggs of the Earth- 
worm ? W^hat of the usefulness of those animals ? What is said of 
the order Suctoria ? What of the class Entozoa ? What of the class 
Rotifera ? 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

MOLLUSKS. 

542. The animals of the sub-kingdom of the Mollusca 
or MoUusks are so named from the Latin word mollis ^ 
soft. Their bodies are soft, and moist, and cold, as you 
see exemplified in the Oyster and the Slug. All animals 
that live in shells, with some few exceptions, already no- 
ticed, belong to this sub-kingdom. But some belonging 
to it have no shelly covering, as the Slug and the Cuttle- 
fish, and these are said to be naked. 



MOLLUSKS. 



311 



543. The Mollusks have no skeleton outside or inside. 
The shells which some of them have are mere coverings, 
or houses, as we may call them. They do not serve, like 
the bones of the Vertebrates and the armor of the Ar- 
ticulates, to furnish attachment to the muscles so that 
they may act. Those Mollusks that lead the stillest life, 
that is, which use their muscles least, generally have the 
£rmest and thickest shells. 

544. The shell is composed of carho7iate of lime, with 
some animal matter, while in the bones of the Vertebrates 
the mineral portion is the lyhosj^hate of lime. In some 
the mineral part jDredominates, and the shell is very hard, 
like porcelain ; Avliile in others, as the oyster, there are 
distinct layers of the mineral matter, with a membrane 
of animal substance between them. The shell is secreted 
from the thick skin of the animal, which is called the 
mantle. It is formed from the blood, and the materials 
for it are taken in with the food. 

545. Shells are of two kinds — those which are in one 
piece, and those which are in two pieces, with a hinge to 
keep them together. Mollusks that have the first kind 
of shell are termed univalve^ and those which have the 
second are termed bivalve. Clams and Oysters are fa- 
miliar examples of bivalves. Two varieties of univalves 
are represented in Fig. 249. 




Fig. 249. 

546. Shells undergo some changes in form as they grow 



318 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



with the growth of the animals in them. Sometimes ad- 
ditions are made to them, entirely altering the figure, so 
that two animals of different ages really of the same spe- 
cies would hardly be recognized as such. In Fig. 250 we 
have at a and b back and front views of the shell of a 





Fig. 250. 

.young Mollusk, and at c and d similar views of the shell 
of the full-grown animal. The addition of the spines 
bears some analogy to the addition of horns in some of 
the Mammalia. 

547. Most of the Mollusca can move about but little, 
and some none at all. They have but little muscle, and 
are in this respect in striking contrast with the Articu- 
lata, which are nearly all muscle (§ 383). It is only where 
the body is naked (that is, without a shelly covering), or 
where a portion of the body can be projected out from 
the opening in the shell, that any active movements can 
be effected. In many inhabiting bivalve shells there is a 
fleshy, tongue-like j)rojection called 2, foot ^ which in some 
cases enables the animal to leap ; in some is used as a 
boring apj)aratus ; in some acts as a sort of fin for swim- 



MOLLUSKS. 319 

ming ; and in some produces the byssus^ a collection of 
threads by which the animal attaches itself to rocks and 
other objects. In most of those which inhabit tmivalve 
shells there is no projecting foot ; but the under side of 
the mantle is thickened into a fleshy disk, which by its 
contractions and expansions effects the progression of the 
animal, as is seen in the common Snail, ^mong the Mol- 
lusks similar to these in structure, but having no shell, the 
whole mantle is muscular, enabling them to move quite 
freely, especially those that live in water. In the Cuttle- 
fish tribe we have the most efiicient means of locomotion 
in the shape of arms, and in some of this group there are 
fin-like appendages, the arms being quite short. 

548. Leadino; such a sluo:o;ish life as most of the Mol- 
lusks do, their destiny seems to be to grow, by their di- 
gestive powers, into a well-fatted mass, so that they may 
be good food for other animals that inhabit the deep, and 
some of them for man. 

549. Almost all of these animals breathe by gills; but 
some, like the Snails and Slugs, have something like lungs, 
as they live in air. The blood is nearly colorless, and 
circulates in a regular system of arteries and veins con- 
nected with a heart. 

550. This sub-kingdom has two grand divisions — the 
Cephalous Mollusca (k-f^aX?), kephale^ head), those which 
have heads ; and the Acephalous, those which are head- 
less. I will first speak of the Cephalous. All belonging 
to this division that have shells have those which are 
univalve. The Cephalous Mollusks are divided into three 
groups: 1. Cephalopoda, those which have feet arranged 
in a circular manner around the head. 2. Pteropoda, 
wing-footed. These have a pair of wing-like expansions 
of the mantle, which serve as fins, and enable them to 
swim quite rapidly. This is a small class, but a very in- 
teresting one. 3. Gasteropoda, belly-footed. These have 
a single broad foot on the under surface of the body. 
The first two classes belong entirely to the sea ; but this 



320 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



class has some species that live in fresh water, and some 
even that live on land. I will notice each of these groups. 

551. Of the Cephalopoda, the only few existing species 
that have a shelly covering are the Argonauts and the 
Pearly Nautilus. Tliere are, however, many fossil shells 

found which must have belonged 
to animals of this group. The 
Ammonites, commonly called 
Snake Stones, of which a speci- 
men is given in Fig. 251, are the 
most abundant of these, there hav- 
ing been described over five hund- 
red species. These are found in 
various kinds of rocks, and are of 
Fig. 25i.-Ammonite. yarious sizcs, somc reaching a di- 
ameter of even four feet. 

552. The arms of some of the Cephalopods are very 
long. This is the case with the Cuttle-fish, one of the 
most singular of animals, seen in Fig. 252. Its body is 





Fig. 252.— Cuttle-fish. 



soft, and is covered only with a leathery skin. From 
around its mouth extend eight long arms, which have on 
them great numbers of Uttle suckers, by which it can 



MOLLUSKS. 



321 



cling to rocks or retain its hold upon its prey. It has a 
powerful parrot-like beak, with which it can crush the 
shell-fish and the Crustacea that it captures. It can man- 
age even a large Crab in this way. Winding its long 
arms around it, and holding it, both body and claws, with 
its numerous suckers, it deUberately crushes its various 
parts with its strong mandibles, and jDicks out the flesh. 
In the Indian seas this animal attains so large a size as to 
be a dangerous enemy even to man. The color called 
sepia comes from the Cuttle-fish. It is used by the ani- 
mal for darkening the water with an inky cloud, that it 
may more easily escape from a pursuing enemy. The 
so-called cuttle-fish bone is a chalky substance secreted 
from the mouth of the fish, and is composed of almost in- 
numerable plates united by myriads of little pillars. 

553. The Argonaut, Fig. 253, called the Paper Nau- 
tilus, from its thin, 
;^ X-r^^ wliite, delicate shell, 

has, like the Cuttle- 
fish, eight arms with 
suckers. Two of 
these are expanded 
into broad membra- 
nous flaps. From ear- 
ly times it has been 
said that this animal 
uses its membranous 
arms for sails, and its 
other arms for oars. 
It has been found, 
however, that the 
membranes are not 
used at all as sails, 
but are usually spread 
over the sides of the shell, meeting along its keel. It is 
from them, and not from the surface of the body, that 
the calcareous secretion is poured forth for the enlarge- 
02 




^"^ 



Fig. 253. — Argonaut, or Paper Nautilus. 



322 NATURAL HISTORY. 

ment or reparation of the shell. It is by the action of 
the arms as oars, and by the forcing out of water from 
the gill-chambers, that the animal can swim. Both the 
Argonaut and the Cuttle-fish use their arms as feet to 
walk along on the bottom of the sea. 

554. The Pearly Nautilus is so called from the " nacre," 
or mother-of-pearl with which its shell is lined. It is 
Ibund on most shores between the tropics. It is pecul- 
iar in having many separate chambers in its shell, in only 
one of which, the largest and the outermost, the animal 
lives. It has a connection, however, with the other cham- 
bers by a membranous tube called the siphuncle. It is 
supposed that the animal, when it wishes to sink in the 
water, can force some water into this siphuncle, thus in- 
creasing its specific gravity ; and that the reverse takes 
place when it wishes to rise. Some doubt this, and con- 
sider the design of the siphuncle and the chambered 
structure as yet a mystery. 

555. The Pteropoda, or wing-footed Mollusks, consti- 
tute a small and aberrant group. The animals included 
in it may be considered as having the same place in the 
Molluscous kingdom that the Birds have in the Verte- 
brate and the Insects in the Articulate. They fly in the 
water, having for the purpose a pair of fin-like organs, or 
wings, which are an expansion of the mantle on each side 
of the neck. Though the number of species in this group 
is small, the number of individuals in some of the species 
is often enormous in some localities. Some have a shell 
and some have not. 

556. The Clio Borealis, Fig. 254, one of the best known 
of this class of Mollusks, is very abundant in the arctic 
seas, and is one of the principal articles of food of the 
Whalebone Whales (§ 192). These little animals are 
sometimes so numerous that the Whale can not open its 
mouth without ingulfing thousands of them. The CUo 
has eyes, which, though exceedingly small, are very per- 
fect in their organization. It has powerful jaws armed 



MOLLUSKS. 323 




i ig. 254. — Clio Borealis. 

with teeth, calculated to tear in pieces the minute aui 
mals on which it feeds. It has also a very effective ap- 
paratus for securing its prey, consisting of six tentacula 
of a reddish color. On examining one of these with a 
microscope, this color is found to be occasioned by red 
points arranged with great regularity. On magnifying 
these still farther, each point is seen to be a collection of 
about twenty suckers on the ends of as many stalks. 
Each collection is in a sort of sheath, and can be pro- 
truded from it. There are on all the tentacula about 
three hundred and sixty thousand of these suckers, con- 
stituting an apparatus for prehension more extensive, in 
proportion to the size of the animal, than any other to be 
found in the whole animal kingdom. 

•■ Q7f€stion.<!. — ^Yhat is the significance of the name of the third sub- 
kingdom of animals ? What are naked Molhisks ? What is said of 
the use of the covering which most of them have? Of what is it 
composed ? What is said of the proportions of the constituents ? How 
is the shell formed ? What are the two kinds of shells ? What is said 
of the changes which shells undergo in growing ? What is said of the 
locomotion of MoUusks ? What is said of the foot, and its various 
uses ? What is the byssus ? What provision for locomotion is there 
in most of the Mollusks that inhabit bivalve shells ? What in those 
that are similar in structure, but have no shell ? What is the special 
destiny of Mollusks? What is said of their breathing apparatus? 
What of their blood, and its circulation ? What are the two grand 
divisions of Mollusks ? What are the groups in the first division, and 
their characteristics ? Of the Cephalopods, what shelly species exist 
at the present time? What is said of the Ammonites? Describe 
the structure and habits of the Cuttle-fish. What is sepia? What 



324 NATURAL HISTORY. 

is Cuttle-fish bone ? What is said of the Argonaut ? What of the 
Pearly Nautilus ? What is said of the Pteropod group ? What of 
the Clio Borealis ? 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

MOLLUSKS — continued, 

557. The class of Gasteropoda is mostly composed of 
Mollusks that live in a univalve shell, which is usually of 
a spiral shape. You have two diiferent forms of the 
spiral in Fig. 249, page 317. Some of the species, as the 
Slug, are naked or destitute of shell. There is, however, 
in these, sometimes a small shell, generally imbedded in 
the mantle, just over the cavity which contains the lungs. 
The body of the Gasteropods is terminated in front with 
more or less of a head, having fleshy tentacuU, varying 
from two to six in number. The back is covered with a 
mantle which secretes the shell. On the under side of 
the animal is the fleshy mass called the foot. In those 
which have a shell, all the body remains in it except the 
head and the foot. These project beyond it when the 
animal expands them for walking, but they can be with- 
drawn into the first turns of the shell at pleasure. In 
most of the aquatic Gasteropods there is on the foot a 
plate of horny substance, which shuts over the opening 




Fig. 255 — Limnaea Stagnalis. 



MOLLUSKS. 



325 



in the shell after the head and the foot are drawn in. In 
Fig. 255 you see one of these animals with the head and 
the foot out of the shell. 

558. Many of the Gasteropods are remarkable for an 
abundant supply of flinty teeth. Sometimes these are on 
the palate, and in some species even the stomach has 
teeth scattered over its inner surface. The tongue, in 
some, is remarkable for its length, and for the teeth which 
are all along on its upper surface. The tongue of the 
common Limpet, Fig. 256, is an example. It is from two 

to three inches long, and this 
is longer than the whole an- 
imal. When not in use, it is 
turned backward down into 
the stomach. It is spoon- 
shaped at the end. In its 
whole extent it is armed with 
rows of teeth, four in each 
row, and between each two 
rows there are two three- 
pointed teeth. These two 
sets of teeth are represented 
in a magnified portion of the 
tongue in the figure. The 
part of the tongue toward its 
root generally has its edges 
turned over so as to meet, thus making a tube. The 
whole instrument is therefore an efficient rasper, and also 
a proboscis. 

559. Of the Gasteropoda, some are terrestrial and some 
live in fresh water, but most of them are found in the 
sea. The terrestrial Gasteropods are Snails and Slugs. 
In the common Slug there is a prominent head with four 
tentacula, which can be drawn inward by a process like 
the inversion of the finger of a glove. At the ends of 
the longer pair of the tentacula are the eyes. On the 
back there is a kind of shield formed by the mantle, 




Fig. 256. — Limpet's Tongue. 



326 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



which usually incloses a small shell. This shield is over 
the breathing apparatus (§ 557), and the head can be so 
drawn in as to be under it. The Snails have very much 
the same shape and arrangement with the Slug, except 
that they have a shell into which they can withdraw the 
whole body. The common Snail, Fig. 257, lays eggs, 

which are very large 



A -• -^ 




Fig. 257.— SnaiL 



m comparison with 
the size of the ani- 
mal. They are of 
the size of a small 
pea, and are depos- 
ited in the ground 
about two inches 
below the surface. 
560. A few of the 
Gasteropods that, like the Snails and Slugs, breathe with 
lungs, are yet aquatic in their habits. But, like other 
aquatic animals that have lungs, as the Whales, tjjpy are 
obliged every now and then to come to the surface to 
get air. Among these are the Pond Snails, a species of 
which is represented in Fig. 255, page 324. These Mol- 
lusks, and those which are terrestrial, the Slugs and the 
Snails, are included in an order by themselves, as having 
lungs — the order Pulmonifera. 

561. The second order of the Gasteropods includes all 
those which have gills instead of lungs, and also have a 
shell, usually of a spiral form. This order is much larger 
than the others, and presents a great variety of beautiful 
shell-coverings. Some of them have siphons to introduce 
water into the cavities where the gills are, so that the 
animal can breathe without putting its body out from 
the shell. There is a little notch always to be observed 
in the shell where this siphon passes out. 

562. Of the many varieties of the shells of these Gas- 
teropods I will notice but a few. In Fig. 249, page 317, 
on the left, is an example of the Turbinidse, or Whorl fam- 



MOLLUSKS. 



327 



ily, called the Royal Staircase Wentletrap. This is found 
in the Chinese and Lidian Seas. It is so costly — a fine 
specimen commanding, even now, four or five pounds 
sterling — that the specific name attached to it is pretiosa^ 
precious. In the same figure is a specimen from the very 
extensive Cone family. In Fig. 258 the large shell is that 




Fig. 25S. 

of a Whelk, belonging to a family which, from the shape 
of the shells, is called Buccinidae, from huccinum^ a trum- 
pet. The famous Tyrian purple was obtained from one 
of this family. In the same figure is the little Cowry, 
which is a current coin among the natives of Bengal, 
Siam, and many parts of Africa. In Bengal, 3200 of 
these shells are reckoned equal to a rupee, or about two 
shilUngs of English money. In 1849 about three hund- 
red tons of them were imported into Liverpool, designed 
to be used in the African trade. One of the most beautiful 
of the shells which are armed with spines is the Thorny 
Woodcock, Fig. 259, sometimes called Venus' Comb. 




Fig. 259.— Thoray Woodcock. 



328 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Fig. 260. — Glaucus Atlanticus, 



563. There is a third order of the Gasteropods, in 
which the gills are not in a covered cavity or chamber, 
as they are in the second order, but they either stand out 
on the back, or are more or less concealed at tJie sides in 
folds of the mantle. Some of them have shells, but most 
have not. I will give but a single example, the Glaucus, 
Fig. 260, found in the Mediterranean and Indian Seas. 

The hues of these beautiful 
animals are azure blue and sil- 
ver. The gills form two or 
three large tufts on each side, 
which, besides being the 
breathing apparatus of the an- 
imal, are also its instruments 
for swimming. 

564. We now come to the 
second grand division of the 
Mollusks — the Acephalous or Headless Mollusks. These 
may be divided into two groups: 1. Those which have 
shells, called the Conchiferous, or shell-bearing. 2. Those 
which are covered with a leathery or membranous tunic, 
called the Tunicated. 

565. The shells of almost all the Conchifera are bivalve. 
This group includes the Oysters, Clams, Mussels, Scal- 
lops, etc. The shell is exuded or secreted from the man- 
tle, and is in different layers, as may be seen in the shell 
of the Oyster. The outermost layer is the smallest, and 
as the animal grows, each layer is a little larger than the 
one outside of it. The two parts or valves of the shell 
are joined together by a hinge. Near this hinge is an 
elastic ligament, which allows the valves to be a little 
apart, which is their natural position, admitting the wa- 
ter freely to the mouth of the gills. When the animal 
wishes to shut the valves closely, it does so by means of 
a muscle. Sometimes there are two muscles for this 
purpose. 

566. That you may understand the plan of the organs 



MOLLUSKS. 



329 



of these animals, I will give you the anatomy of one of 
them in Fig. 261. One of the valves is removed. You 



S ^2; 



<:S 



(Anterior 
(Ganglia. 

Liver. 

Heart. 

Stomach. 




(Posterior 
(Muscle, 



Mantle. 



Respiratory Tubes. 
Fig. 261.— Anatomy of an Acephalous Mollusk. 

see the mantle, fringed all around its edge. This lines 
the whole shell, and covers the animal. It is its skin. 
You see the two muscles that, by their contraction, bring 
the valves together, and the fleshy foot, which can be 
made to protrude when the valves are left to go apart by 
the action of the elastic ligament. This foot, which is 



330 NATURAL HISTORY. 

the only locomotive organ that the animal has, serves, in 
dilFerent species, a variety of purposes, sometimes ena- 
bling the animal to leap, sometimes being used to bore 
into sand or mud, and sometimes only serving to fix the 
animal to some solid support. In some there proceed 
from this foot a band of hair-like filaments, called the 
byssus. While fastened to some object by these fila- 
ments, the animal may have some considerable motion 
witliin certain limits. The gills have two respiratory or 
breathing tubes connected with them, by one of which 
the water passes into the gills, and by the other passes 
out. The water is made thus to go in and out by fine 
cilia in the gills and on the surface of these tubes, which 
keep up a constant waving or fanning motion. There 
are certain nerves, you see, branching about, and they 
are connected with two pairs of ganglia, or little brains. 
The nervous system is very limited, for the animal has 
little need of either thinking, feeling, or motion. 

567. The lateral symmetry, so thoroughly observed in 
the construction of the Vertebrates and the Articulates, 
which was forsaken to some extent in the Cephalous Mol- 
lusks, is in the Acephalous entirely given up. In them 
there are no two corresponding halves of the body. 

568. The Conchifera we divide into two sections — the 
first including those that have not siphons, and the sec- 
ond those that have them. To the first section belong 
the Oysters, Scallops, Pearl Oysters, etc. The shell of 
the Oyster has two unequal valves. One of these bulges 
out more than the other, and it is by this that it is fast- 
ened to rocks, or pieces of wood, or to other Oysters. 
The structure of this animal is even more simple than 
that sketched in Fig. 261. It has no foot; for, as it is 
fixed by its shell in one spot, it needs none. Oysters are 
very prolific animals, forming immense banks ^ and thus 
providing quite largely for the sustenance of man. " But 
man," says Carpenter, " is by no means the only enemy 
to the Oyster. Its body serves as food to many marine 



MOLLUSKS. 



331 



animals, which have various modes of getting at it, in 
spite of its shelly defense. From some of these it can 
secure itself by closing its valves as soon as it is alarmed ; 
and against others it has a more active means of defense 
in the violent expulsion of the water included between 
them, which (as it is itself fixed) will frequently drive off 
its opponent. Various animals attack it, also, by perfo- 
rating its shell ; and to these, also, it can offer a passive 
resistance, by depositing new shelly matter within. So 
that even this lowly-organized being, commonly regard- 
ed as one of the most vegetative of animals, is provided 
by its Creator with such means as are necessary for its 
preservation, and doubtless, also, for its enjoyment." 

569. Pearl Oysters, from which pearls are obtained, 
are found both in the Old and New World. Ceylon is 
famous for its pearl fisheries. Pearls are globules of 
" nacre," which chances to be deposited in this form, in- 
stead of being spread out over the inner surface of the 
shell ; it being in the latter case called mothei^-of-pearl. 
The Pearl Oyster is not the only animal from which 
pearls can be obtained. They are often found in other 
shells. 

570. The Pectens, or Scallops, of which a species is 
given in Figure 262, are distin- 
guished by the regular ribs of 
the shell, and by the two angu- 
lar projections that widen the 
sides of the hinge. They have 
a small foot, and some species 
have a byssus. In some the 
shell is beautifully colored. 

571. Among those Conchif- 
erous Acephala that have si- 
phons are the Clam-shells, the 
Cockles, etc. Among the Clam- 
shells is one which is the largest known Mollusk. It is 
the Tridacna, or Giant Clam-shell, found only in the In- 




Scallop. 



332 NATURAL HISTORY. 

dian and Australian waters. There is a pair of these 
shells in the Church of St. Sulpice, in Paris, used as re- 
ceptacles of holy water, which weigh over five hundred 
pounds. The common Clam belongs to a different group, 
the Venerace^e. The foot of these, of the Cockles, and 
of the Pholadaceoe, the group to which the Teredo be- 
longs, is used mostly for burrowing. Most of them bur- 
row in sand or mud, some in rocks, and some in wood. 
Those that burrow or bore in hard substances can not 
do this with the foot. It is done with a sort of rasping 
operation of the edges of the shell, the foot answering in 
this case only as a means of holding on while the animal 
bores. The Teredo, by this boring operation, is largely 
destructive to ship bottoms, piles, etc. Holland has been 
sometimes threatened with an inundation by the destruc- 
tion of dikes by this little Mollusk. 

572. One of the most interesting of the Mollusks which 
burrow in sand is the Razor-shell, so called from its length. 
It can burrow very rapidly, and therefore it is quite dif- 
ficult to catch it. It bores in the sand with its foot, 
which it can elongate so as to make it quite pointed. Its 
burrow^ is recognized by the little jet of water which it 
throws out when it is alarmed. If a little salt be thrown 
upon its hole it will make its appearance, but one must 
be quick in his movements to catch it before it can get 
out of sight again. Its mode of burrowing is very curi- 
ous. It puts its foot into a dagger-shape, as represented 

at a in Fig. 263, and thrusts it down- 
ward in the sand. Now it gives it 
the shape of a bell-clapper, as at &, 
and the end furnishing it a hold in 
the sand, it moves its body forward 
5 1 \ by shortening the foot. By repeated 
Fig. 263. movements of this kind it gets along 

quite rapidly in the loose sand. 

573. What is stated in the previous paragraph exem- 
plifies one of the many modes in which the foot of Mol- 



Q 



MOLLUSKS. 333 

lusks is used. Some, thrusting it out, attach it to some 
support, and then, by contracting it, pull themselves 
along. Some use it to push themselves forward, as a 
man in a boat pushes himself from the shore with his oar. 
And some, by bending the foot and then quickly straight- 
ening it, leap forward. There is a little Mollusk, the 
lanthina, or Oceanic Snail, Fig. 264, which has attached 




Fig. 264. — lanthina with its raft. 

to its foot a raft of singular construction. It is made of 
numberless vesicles, a, filled with air. Its purpose is to 
float the eggs, b. You see at c the gills of this little an- 
imal, and at d its tentacles and eye-stalks. The lanthina 
is often met with in great numbers in companies in the 
open sea. In rough w^eather much damage is often done 
to their beautiful floats, and sometimes they are w^holly 
destroyed. 

574. The Tunicata form an aberrant group oftheMol- 
lusca, verging, in their organization, toward the Radiata, 
the only remaining sub-kingdom to be noticed. Although 
it would be interesting to consider this group, I shall pass 
it by. I shall also omit another class, the Polyzoa, for- 
merly supposed to belong to the Radiates, but recently 
ascertained to belong to the Mollusks. 

Questions. — In what do the Gasteropods mostly live ? What is said 
of the form of their shells ? What is said of the naked Gasteropods ? 
Describe the structure of these animals. What is said of their teeth ? 
Describe the structure of the Limpet's tongue. What are the terres- 
trial Gasteropods ? Describe the common Slug. Describe the com- 
mon Snail. What is said of the Pond Snails ? What are included 
in the order of Gasteropods called Palmonifera ? What is said of the 



33-i NATURAL HISTORY. 

order whose animals breathe by gills ? What is said of the Whorl 
family ? What of the family called Buccinidixj ? What is said of the 
Cowry ? What is said of the third order of Gasteropods ? What are 
the two groups of Acephalous ^lollusks ? What are the shells of the 
Conchiferous group ? What does it include ? In what way is the 
shell formed ? How are the two valves united ? How moved ? 
What is the anatomy of the Acephala? What is said of the symme- 
try- of these animals ? AVhat are the two sections of the Conchifera ? 
What is said of the Oyster ? What of the Pearl Oysters ? What of 
the Pectens? What are among the Conchifera that have siphons? 
What is said of the Tridacna? What is said of the Cockles, the 
VeneraccaD, and the Pholadacea;? What of the Teredo? What of 
the Razor-shell ? What is said of the various ways in which the foot 
is used by MoUusks? What is said of the Ocean Snails? What is 
said of the Tunicata ? 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

RADIATES. 

575. "We now come to the last sub-kingdom — that of 
the Radiates. The arrangement of structure here is, in 
many respects, entirely different from that of the other 
sub-kingdoms. There is a lateral symmetry of form in 
the Vertebrates and the Articulates. While this is most- 
ly abandoned in the Mollusks, in the Radiates it is ex- 
changed for another symmetry of a wholly different char- 
acter — a symmetry of rays arranged circularly. It is 
therefore akin to that of plants. Indeed, many of the 
animals of this sub-kingdom were formerly supposed to 
be plants, and are now, from the resemblance referred to, 
called plant-animals. 

576. This resemblance may be very distinctly seen in 
the Actiniae, or Sea Anemones, of which there are many 
species. The structure of these is very singular. There 
is a broad, flat, muscular base, of a circular shape, by 
which the animal adheres firmly to a rock. From this 
base rises a rounded body, on the top of which there is 
an orifice, which is more or less open according to cir- 



BADIATES. 



335 



cumstances. The animal can close this opening entirely. 
Around this mouth of the animal are arranged rows of 
tentacula, extending out like rays when the mouth is 
open, and giving the creature the appearance of a flower 
with its spread petals. Fig. 265 shows Sea Anemones in 




Fig. 2C5 Actiuia^, or Sea Anemones. 

three different states. The upper one has the mouth 
closed and the tentacles drawn in, and the animal pre- 
sents almost a hemispherical form. The one just below 
on the rock is partly opened ; and another, under the wa- 
ter, is fully expanded, looking like a flower. 

677. The mouth of the Actinia conducts to a stomach 
which may be said to be very large in proportion to the 
whole body. The oflSce of the tentacles is to catch the 
prey of the animal, and force it into this cavity. Fig. 
266 represents one of these ani- 
mals cut open, showing the stom- 
ach at a. At h are certain cavi- 
ties or chambers, which are all 
^ ^lllMiliHiiiB — ^ around the stomach. These 
chambers all communicate with 
each other, and also with the 
Fig. 2G6. tentacles, which are tubular. 




336 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Water is taken into the chambers by these tubes, and 
then is forced out, through these same tubes, in jets, 
with such force, often, as to rise to the height of a foot 
or more. The chief office of these chambers seems to be 
to expose the blood of the animal to the air in the water. 
In other words, they are the gills, or the breathing appa- 
ratus. These animals are found on all coasts, commonly 
on rocks, where they can be a part of the time under the 
water and a part of the time out of it. Their habits I 
shall refer to again hereafter. 

578. The radiate arrangement so manifest in the Sea 
Anemones and in the Starfish (§ 17) is not seen so plain- 
ly in many of the other animals of this sub-kingdom ; and 
some of the orders are quite aberrant. In some there is 
a considerable approach to the Articulata. The Star- 
fislies and the Sea Anemones are among the type families 
of the Radiates. 

579. Some of the animals of this sub-kingdom have the 
power of moving about, but most of them, in conformity 
with their plant-like character, are stationary during a 
part or the whole of their existence. In muscular appa- 
ratus, therefore, most of the Radiates, like the Mollusks, 
are in strong contrast with the Articulates. 

580. There is a resemblance to vegetables in still other 
respects besides those already mentioned. When any 
parts of these animals are lost by accident, they are gen- 
erally replaced by a new growth. Besides, there is often 
a new animal produced entire by a sort of budding from 
some part. And even farther than this, in some portions 
of this kingdom the animals are arranged in companies, 
like the parts of a plant, on a common stalk or trunk. 

581. None of these animals have any thing like a head, 
and they have only the senses of touch and taste. The 
senses of sight, hearing, and smell, so far as we can see, 
are wholly absent. For the arrangement of the nervous 
system, I refer you to § 18. 

582. As in most of the Radiates there is a small amount 



EADIATES. B37 

of muscle, there is a very remarkable structure which 
seems in some respects to take its place. This structure, 
though found to a considerable extent in other animals, 
is present to an extraordinary degree in the Radiates. 
It is the ciliary structure alluded to in § 566. Cilia are 
fine hair-like filaments which cover the surface of many 
membranes, and fringe their edges. They are quite reg- 
ularly arranged, sometimes in straight rows, and some- 
times spirally or in circles. They have a motion which, 
in some cases, is obedient to the will of the animal, but 
in others is independent of the Avill. When in motion 
each filament bends from the root to its point, straight- 
ening out again, like a stalk of grain acted upon by the 
wind ; and we have, therefore, when many of them are in 
motion, an appearance like the successive waves in a field 
of grain as the wind blows over it. This motion can be 
seen only by the aid of the microscope. It is beautifully 
displayed in the gills of the Oyster. The object of this 
movement is to produce currents in the fluid in contact 
with the membrane. These currents serve various pur- 
poses, as, for example, to bring food within the reach of 
the tentacles, and to carry fresh portions of water through 
the respiratory apparatus. For this latter purpose cilia 
cover the membranes lining the chambers in the Actiniae 
(§577). Cilia are needed in those animals which are most 
stationary, and in them, therefore, they are most manifest. 

583. We divide this sub-kingdom into three classes: 
1. Echino-dermata (e^^^^oc, echinos^ a sea-urchin; lepfxa^ 
derma^ skin), prickle-skinned animals. 2. Acalephs (a/ca- 
\ri(pr)^ akalephe^ a nettle). Sea-nettles, or Jelly-fishes. 3. 
Phytozoa {(^vrov^pliyton^ a plant; ^woj^, zoon^ an animal), 
commonly called Polyps. These are fixed, like plants, 
and have flexible arms about the mouth, as seen in the 
Sea Anemone, Fig. 266. 

584. One of the Echinoderms, the Starfish, I noticed 
in the first chapter (§ 17). It merits here, however, a 
more particular description. It is only the upper side of 

P 



838 NATUBAL HISTORY. 

the animal which is represented in Fig. 9. On its under 
side are great numbers of little feet. With these it walks 
along on the bottom of the sea, searching for food, which 
it puts into its mouth, this being in the centre of the star 
on the under side. These feet are fleshy, and are hollow 
tubes, like the tentacles of the Actinia) (§577). They are 
so shaped that they can be used as suckers, and the animal 
can shorten and lengthen them at pleasure. It is by 
pumping water into and out of them that the suction is 
efiected. In walking, the suckers are some of them thrown 
forward, and, taking hold of the surface on w^hich the an- 
imal is, and then shortening, they draw it forward." It 
can Avalk up the side of a smooth rock in this way. The 
operation can be seen by placing one of these animals in 
a glass vessel filled with water. If you place a Starfish 
in your hand on its back, that is, with its feet upward, 
you will see these little suckers reaching forth in all di- 
rections ; and if you look at them with a magnifying 
glass, you will observe a ring-like arrangement in each 
sucker as it lengthens out, quite as plainly as you see it 
in a common worm. 

585. These animals not only walk with these suckers, 
but they seize their prey with them. They are carniv- 
orous and rapacious ; and in taking their prey they fasten 
their suckers to it, antl work it up to the central mouth, 
which is opened wdde to receive it. 

586. Besides the motion of the suckers, the five arms 
on which these are can be moved also in various direc- 
tions. In some species there are little red spots at the 
ends of the rays, which are supposed by some to be 
eyes ; but this is very doubtful. 

587. The order Stellerida, to which the Starfish be- 
longs, includes a large variety of animals having a gen- 
eral resemblance, but varying in the relative proportion 
of the body and the rays, and the arrangements of the 
latter. In some species there is little else but arms, while 
in others the central part is large. 



RADIATES. 339 

588. The Sea Egg, as it is commonly called, is the crust 
or shell of a spiny or prickle-skinned animal, stripped of 
its spines. In Fig. 267 you see this animal, called an 




Fig. 261. — Shell of Echinus, or Sea Urchin; on the right side covered with spines:, 
on the left the spines removed. 

Echinus, with the spines removed from half of it. These 
spines are curiously jointed with the shell. There is a 
round projection of the shell at the root of each spine, 
upon which the spine works with its cup-like cavity, mak- 
ing a regular ball and socket joint. These projections 
every one must have noticed arranged with such beauti- 
ful regularity on the Sea Egg. There are the same tubu- 
lar feet as in the Starfish, but much larger, and therefore 
more efficient in taking prey. In walking, while the 
suckers are the moving power, the animal is carried for- 
ward on the spines, these acting after the manner of a 
crutch. The animal inside of this singular shell has a 
stomach, a respiratory apparatus, intestines, etc. Its 
mouth has quite formidable teeth. Small Crustacea and 
Mollusca are its chief food. 

589. The shell is made up of small plates, and, as the 
animal grows, each one of these plates is made larger by 
increase at its edge. The growth is like that of the cov- 



340 NxVTUKAL HISTORY. 

ering of the Turtle. If it were not for tliis arrangement 
the animal would be obliged to leave its shell occasion- 
ally, and have, like the Lobster, a new covering formed. 

590. The Echini (plural of Echinus) are generally found 
on sandy shores. Here they make hollows with their 
spines, and in them lie in wait for their prey. As they 
do this they let their tubular feet play about, and when 
any Mollusk or Crustacean happens to hit a sucker, it is 
at once captured, many suckers taking hold of it, and 
passing it to the mouth to be crushed, and thrust into 
the stomach. 

591. Many of these animals have a powerful and com- 
plex masticating apparatus. It consists of five hard, 
sharp teeth, worked by strong muscles. These teeth are 
attached to bony jaws, and the whole apparatus has twen- 
ty-five pieces, moved by thirty-five distinct muscles. It is 
a powerful mill, reducing to fragments the Crustacea and 
Mollusks which the tentacula capture and force into it. 

592. The most singular of all the facts in regard to the 
Echini is the mode of their development. There comes 
out of the egg an animal covered with cilia, and by the 
waving movement of these, it swims freely about in the 
Avater. At first it is globular, but it soon acquires a. py- 
ramidal form, having a stomach opening below. At the 
same time there are formed four slender, bony rods in 
the four angles of the pyramid, meeting together at the 
top. There are some cross-pieces, also, on the sides of 
the pyramid, connecting the rods together. All this 
time the animal is moving about by means of the cilia, 
which are all over its outside. It is a sort of pyramidal 
tent sailing about. Inside of this the real animal is at 
length formed, and, at the same time, the tent-portion of 
the original animal w^astes away. The stomach of the 
animal that comes out of the egg is the only part which 
remains through all this metamorphosis. 

593. There are two orders of the Echinoderms which 
are quite aberrant. One is that of the Crinoidea, which 



RADIATES. 



341 



derives its name from the lily-like form which some of its 
species present. Most of the species are extinct, but they 
are found in their fossil state abundantly in Hmestone 
and some other rocks. The other aberrant order is that 
in which are those animals that are called by sailors Sea 
Cucumbers, from their resemblance in form and in sur- 
face to the cucumber of our gardens. 

594. The second class of the Radiata is that of the 
Acalephs. These animals are called Sea Nettles and 
Stangfishes, from the stinging sensation which nearly all 
of them can inflict on being touched. They are also call- 
ed Jelly-fishes, from their great softness. Most of their 
bulk is merely water. Though one may weigh even 
many pounds when first taken from the water, when it 
has lost all its fluid parts it will weigh only as many 
grains. There are many species, some being no larger" 
than the head of a pin, and some being of very consider- 
able size. 

595. One of the most common of these animals is the 
Medusa. This is often seen in great multitudes floating 
along near the shore in a calm, bright day. You see the 
shape and usual position of the animal in Fig. 268, B. 




Fig. 2C8. 

Its body is umbrella -shaped, with a fringe around its 
edge. It is by a waving motion of this umbrella that it 
moves along in the water. Its mouth is in the centre of 
tlie under surface, and from around it hang down four 
leaf-like tentacula, which are both feelers and graspers 



342 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of its prey. These tentacula carry the food to the mouth. 
The stinging power possessed by them is probably of 
service in overcoming its prey, like the poison of the 
Scorpions and other insects. At A you see the under 
surfixce, showing the mouth in the middle. The resem- 
blance in arrangement to the Actiniie is very obvious, 
the chief difference being that, in the one group, the 
mouth is above, while in the other it is on the under sur- 
lace. The Medusae often reach a considerable size. It 
is said that they have been seen of three or four feet in 
diameter, and of even sixty pounds weight. Although 
they are such watery animals, they eat solid food, for in 
their stomachs have been found small Crustacea, Mol- 
lusks, and even Fishes. 

596. The Acalephs generally float near the surface of 
the water, and sometimes are seen in great abundance 
basking in the sun, and reflecting its rays in such a man- 
ner as to make a play of the most brilliant colors. The 
phosphorescence sometimes seen in the sea is owing 
chiefly to small Acalephse. Carpenter thus describes the 
beauty of this phenomenon as witnessed in the warmer 
latitudes : " The w^hole surface of the ocean displays a 
difi'used luminosity, hke that of the Milky Way on a clear 
night. The path of the ship is marked by a brilliant line 
of glowing light. The waves, as they gently curl over 
one another (this phenomenon is never seen with a rough 
sea), break into brilliant spangles. The oars of a boat 
rowing over them seem dripping with pearls w^hen raised 
from the water, and every stroke is marked with a new 
line of brightness. And amid this general splendor, va- 
ried forms of more glowing lustre are seen to move — 
some like ribbons of flame, some like globes of fire, some 
gently gliding through the still ocean, others more rap- 
idly moving just beneath its surface." 

597. To the Ciliograde order of Acalephs belongs the 
common Beroe, Fig. 269, which is thus described by Dr. 
Harvey, an English naturalist : " This little creature is 



RADIATES. 



343 



met with in summer on most 
parts of the coast, swimming 
near the surface, and may 
readily be taken in a gauze 
drag-net. It has a melon- 
shaped body, from half an 
inch to nearly an inch in 
length, clear as crystal, and 
divided, as it were, into 
gores by eight longitudinal 
equidistant bands or ribs. 
These ribs, when minutely 
examined, are found clothed 
with innumerable flat plates 
resembhng the paddles of 
a water-wheel placed one 
above another, and acting 
under the control of the will 
of the animal. When the 
Beroe wishes to move, these 
paddles are set in motion, 
and by their imited action 
on the water propel the liv- 
ing globe of crystal, with a 
swift and easy motion, for- 
ward or backward, as it 
wills ; and when it wishes 
to turn, it merely stops the 
movement of the paddles on 
one side. The cilia, in sunhght, reflect brilliant prismatic 
colors, and in darkness flash with a beautiful blue light. 
Delicate as are its organs of motion, the fishing appara- 
tus of the Beroe is not less elegant. This consists of two 
long and exceedingly slender tentacula, five or six inches 
in length when fully extended, but capable of being whol- 
ly drawn within the body of the creature, where they are 
lodged in tubular sheaths. To the long filament is at- 




Fig. 269— Beroe. 



344 NATURAL HISTORY. 

tached, at regular distances, a multitude of shorter and 
much more slender fibres, which are coiled up in spirals 
when the main filament contracts, and gradually spread 
out as it lengthens. These are very similar to the small 
hooked threads attached at intervals along a fishing-line." 

Questions. — What is said of the symmetry of the Radiates? What 
of the structure of the Actiniaj ? What is the office of the chambers 
around the stomach ? What are the type-families among the Radi- 
ates? AVhat is said of the locomotion of the Radiates? What of 
their 'resemblance to vegetables ? What of their senses and nervous 
system ? What are their cilia ? Describe their mode of action. 
What purposes do they effect? What are the three classes of Radi- 
ates? What is the structure of the Starfish? In what way does it 
walk ? How docs it take its prey ? What is said of the motion of 
its arms? What is said of the order Stellerida? What is the struc- 
ture of the Echinus? IIow does it walk? What is the plan of its 
shell, and how does it grow? Where are the Echini found, and 
what are their habits? What is said of their masticating apparatus? 
What is the mode of their develoi)ment? What is said of two abcr- 
I'ant orders of Echinodorms ? What animals constitute the second 
class of Radiates? What are their peculiarities? What is said of 
the Medusae ? How are they like the Actinia;, and how unlike them ? 
Where are the Acalephs generally seen ? What is said of the phos- 
phorescence of the sea? What is said of the Beroe? 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

RADIATES — continued, 

598. We come now to a class of Radiates including 
animals which are, with some few exceptions, entirely 
different from those of the classes already considered in 
relation to locomotion. Most of the Echinoderms crawl ; 
some of them, and all the Acalephs, swim ; but the Pol- 
ypes are, for the most part, like plants, fixed to the spot 
where they begin life. The older botanists described 
these animals as plants, and arranged them with sea- 
weeds and mosses. The Sea Anemone was considered a 
flower, and the analogous beings found in coral and mad- 



RADIATES. 



345 



repore were spoken of as blossoms of stony plants. It 
is now about a century since their animal character was 
really admitted by naturalists ; and it is only quite re- 
cently that their structure and habits have been thor-. 
oughly investigated. 

599. The Polypes, or Zoophytes, have the most simple 
construction of all animals, but they differ from each oth- 
er in the degree of their simplicity. The most simple of 
all are the Hydras — little Polypes which you can find in 
stagnant waters. In Fig. 270 you have a representation 

of one of these. The smaller 
figure shows it of the natural 
size. It is a simple sac or 
purse-like animal, with a mouth, 
and tentacula arranged around 
the mouth. AYith these tenta- 
cles or arms the animal catches 
its prey, and puts it into its 
stomach through the mouth, a. 
In its general shape, and in the 
working of the arms, it is much 
like the Cuttle-fish (§ 550). Its 
tentacles are, however, armed 
in a very different manner. 
They have neither suckers, like 
Fig. 270. -Hydra. ^j^oge of ^he Cuttlc-fish, uor cil- 

ia, like those of many animals, but minute bristles, and 
sharp, firm spines, curiously arranged. These spines are 
concealed in wart-like processes when they are not in 
use, but they can at any time be thrust out, just as the 
claws of a carnivorous animal are protruded from their 
concealment when their services are needed. 

600. When the Hydra is searching for prey, it allows 
its tentacles to float about in the water, its body being 
fastened by a sucker to some solid substance. If a Crus- 
tacean or an aquatic worm happens to hit one of them, 
the arm is immediately thrown around it, as you see in 

P2 




346 NATURAL HISTORY. 

the figure, the sphies being forced out to make sure the 
hold. If the animal caught be of sufficient size to require 
it, the other arms are thrown around it also, and the vic- 
tim is conveyed to the stomach. It has been observed 
that soft-bodied animals, if held for a little while in the 
arms without being swallowed, always die, even when 
released alive ; from which it is inferred that the spines 
convey a poisonous secretion into the bodies of the prey, 
as do the fang of a serpent and the sting of a bee. As 
the Hydra can not do this to Crustaceans or any hard- 
shelled animals, they do not die at once on being swal- 
lowed ; and so thin is the texture of the Hydra, that the 
outlines of these animals can be seen as they move about 
inside. 

GOl. The Hydra has some power of locomotion. When 
it wishes to change its place, it docs it with a movement 
like that of the Geometrical Caterpillars (§ 479). Bend- 
ing its body forward, and taking hold either by its mouth 
or its tentacles, it raises its sucker, and advances it. 
Then, fastening itself again by this, it carries forw^ard 
again the upper part of its body and the tentacles, and 
thus slowly moves to the desired spot. It takes several 
hours to march two inches in this way, and seven or 
eight inches may be regarded as a good day's journey. 
But sometimes the Hydra gets along faster by executing 
a series of somersets, fastening himself by his tentacles, 
and then throwing his body forward. It sometimes, also, 
manages to sail along by a curious contrivance. It raises 
its flat sucker above the surface of the water, and letting 
it become dry, it acts as a sort of float, the animal hang- 
ing down in the water. In this way it can sail over con- 
siderable distances, either carried along by the wind blow- 
ing on the float, or by the tentacles acting as paddles. 
Though there is little of positive sensation in this animal, 
and therefore but a low degree of enjoyment, it undoubt- 
edly considers this ingenious way of sailing as one of its 
best sports. 



RADIATES. 347 

602. The Hydra is nothing but a stomach with tenta- 
cles attached to it. It can be turned inside out like a 
glove, and fare as well as before, showing that there is 
little, if any difference between what may be called its 
skin and its inside lining. Trembley, the first discoverer 
of the Hydrae, once witnessed a very singular circum- 
stance : " Two Polypes had seized upon the same animal ; 
both had partially succeeded in swallowing it ; when the 
largest put an end to the dispute by swallowing its op- 
ponent, as well as the subject of contention. Trembley 
naturally regarded so tragical a termination of the affray 
as the end of the swallowed Polype's existence ; but he 
was mistaken ; for, after the devourer and his captive 
had digested the prey between them, the latter was re- 
gurgitated, safe and sound, and apparently no worse for 
the imprisonment." 

603. Hydras are produced in two ways. One is by 
seeds or eggs. These are thrown out by the animal in 
the autumn in the form of gelatinous globules, and in the 
following spring Hydras come from them, and, fastening 
themselves to some stick or other solid substance, begin 
their quiet but predaceous life. Another mode of pro- 
duction is by buds, thus allying these animals in a marked 
manner to plants. Buds at first appear as slight projec- 
tions from the outer surface of the body, and these grad- 
ually become perfect animals, at length separating from 
the parent to attach themselves to some solid body. The 
stomach of the young Polype commimicates with that of 
the parent so long as they are connected together ; and 
yet it is not uncommon to see both struggling for the 
same worm, and gorging opposite ends of it. Sometimes 
the young Hydra has buds start out from its body before 
it has separated from the parent, so that we have three 
generations in one group. This production of different 
generations is so rapid in some cases, that it is calculated 
that above a million descendants come from one animal 
in a month. 



348 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



604. But the most remarkable fact in regard to the 
Hydra is, that if a small piece of its body, or even if a 
tentacle be torn off, the separated part will itself become 
a perfect animal. Thirty or forty Hydras may be pro- 
duced by cutting a single one into pieces. The Hydra 
of ancient fable seems thus to be realized in nature. The 
Hydra does not seem to suffer at all from mutilation, but 
young Polypes sprout abundantly from any wound that 
may be made. Two Polypes may even be grafted to- 
gether by their cut surfaces. This can be done not only 
with those of the same species, but with different species, 
as the green and brown Hydras. 

605. There are some Polypes, belonging to the same 
order with the Hydras, Avhich have a much stronger re- 
semblance to plants in their habits and arrangements. 

They are situated on horny 
stalks, and, in some cases, 
these stalks have branch- 
es, with cells on them, for 
containing the little Pol- 
ypes, as seen in the Sertu- 
laria,Fig.271. The stalk 
and branches here are hol- 
low, being lined with a 
membrane which is the 
essential part of the ani- 
mal, or, rather, of the com- 
munity of animals thus 
united together. Each in- 
dividual Polype may be 
considered as having a 
stomach of its own, but 
communicating with 
a sort of stomach common 
to them all, which lines 
the branches and the stalk. 

Fig. 271.— Sertularian Polypes. There is in thlS rCSpCCt an 




RADIATES, 349 

analogy to the Hydra during the temporary connection 
of the young Hydras with it, their stomachs having a 
communication with the stomach of the parent. These 
beautiful and delicate animals were formerly sujDposed to 
be vegetable, and were called by naturalists sea mosses. 

606. Of the order of Polypes called Helianthoida I 
have already noticed quite particularly' one group, the 
Actiniae (§ 576), as illustrating well the characteristics 
of the Radiata. There need to be added here to what 
has been said some farther statements in regard to their 
structure and habits. It is the beauty of the expanded 
disks of these and other allied animals that gives the name 
Helianthoida to this order, this word being derived from 
two Greek words meaning sun and form. In the trop- 
ics they are peculiarly brilliant, and many travelers speak 
most enthusiastically of the gorgeous spectacles which 
groups of them often present. 

607. Some Actiniae live on smooth sands, spreading 
out their tentacles for prey, and retiring beneath the sand 
when danger threatens. But most of them attach them- 
selves to rocks, often adhering so firmly that they can 
not be detached without lacerating them. And when 
portions of the disk are left fixed to the rock, new ani- 
mals will be formed from them, just as is the case with 
sections of Hydras (§ 604). There is one species that 
fastens itself to some shell ; and it is observed that the 
Hermit Crabs are fond of taking up their abode in such 
shells, making a singular sort of partnership. 

608. The muscular structure in some of the larger spe- 
cies is very distinct, and exhibits great power in action. 
They can not only master small shellfish and Crustacea, 
but even Crabs, Prawns, and other Crustacea of consid- 
erable bulk. The mouth is capable of wide distention, 
so that animals can be taken in which one should suppose 
to be inadmissible. It is amusing to witness the strug- 
gles of some animal that has, in walking about, come over 
one of these gaping mouths, as it is caught by the tenta- 



350 NATURAL HISTORY. 

cula and thrust down into the capacious stomach. So 
voracious are these animals that they will attempt to 
swallow articles which their stomachs can not possibly 
accommodate. In this case the animal wdll perhaps hold 
the mass partly in and partly out of the stomach firmly 
wdth its tentacles, pushing it farther in as fast as the low- 
er part of the mass is digested. 

609. In § 599 I spoke of the arrangements of the ten- 
tacles of different animals. The structure of the tenta- 
cles of the Actinia3 is very peculiar. Their power of 
holding on is owing to a multitude of cells, in which 
there are coiled up in a spiral form fine wire-like fila- 
ments. These can be shot forth from their cells to a con- 
siderable length, and this being done with a multitude 
of them enables the animal to hold on fast to its prey. 

GIO. Some of the Polypes of this order have a skele- 
ton. It is formed inside of the animal at its lower part, 
and it is fastened to the spot where the Polype lives. 
We may consider it as a foundation frame-work for its 
body. Resting on this, it puts forth its arms continually 
to take its food. 

611. But this skeleton differs from the skeletons of all 
other animals in one respect. Other animals retain their 
skeletons all their lifetime ; but the Polype does not. It 
is constantly making new skeleton. It is a singular proc- 
ess, and I will describe it to you with its results. The 
very lowest part of the Polype is continually dying, and 
with it the skeleton which it covers. But as this dies 
the animal keeps its full size, for the body is continually 
supplied with new living substance on the borders of the 
dying portion. It grows just as fast as it dies. It there- 
fore is all the time moving upward, making new skele- 
ton, and leaving the old below. The result, you plainly 
see, would be a column of dead skeleton with the Polype 
at the top of it. In this column, after a while, the living 
part is but small in comparison with the dead part below. 

612. This result you see represented in Fig. 272, one 




RADIATES. 351 

of the Caryophyllia. Here are 
two stony columns formed by two 
Polypes. Tlie animals are ever 
at the summits, with only a small 
portion of the columns in their 
bodies and living. The rest is 
like dead bone. It dilFers from 
the bones of common animals in 
its composition. Their bones are 
made oi phosphate of lime, while 
the Polype's skeleton is made of 
Fig. 272.-caryophyiiia. ^^^ cavhonate of Hmc, or chalk, 
like the shells of the MoUusks. All of this stony sub- 
stance forming these columns is supplied from the blood 
of the Polype. It gets into the blood from the water, 
and from the food which the Polype eats. The immense 
masses of coral seen in some localities are formed there 
in the same way essentially with the bones of the Verte- 
brates and the shells of the Mollusks and Crustacea. 
You observe in the figure that on the summit of one of 
the columns there are two Polypes, one being larger than 
the other. Here is the beginning of a branching process 
which is very common. A second Polype has started 
out of the side of the original one ; and, as the growth 
and death go on, now there will be two columns instead 
of one from that point. And as these grow upward, 
there may be still other divisions in the same manner. 

613. Some species of coral-forming Polypes, instead of 
being on branches, are distributed over a continuous sur- 
face of a stony or calcareous mass. This arrangement is 
represented in the Astrea Viridis, Fig. 273 (page 352). 
Here is a rounded mass of limestone, made up of the 
united skeletons of Polypes. Over its upper portion is a 
fleshy covering connecting the Polypes together, making 
Avhat is called a polypidom, or household of Polypes. 
At a a are the Polypes, out of their cells and fully ex- 
panded. Kthh the animals are A\dthin the cells. At c is 



352 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



ivU 




' fyOOQy 

,..v. „..j ,...., ^... 




Fig. 273. — Mass of Astrea Viridis. 



the stone uncovered by the 
flesh. Among the expand- 
ed Polypes are seen two 
which are out of their cells, 
but their tentacles are not 
expanded. 

614. It is chiefly by the 
coral-forming animals of this 
order that the coral reefs 
and islands have been built. 
So immense are the works 
which large companies of 
these animals perform here and there, that we may re- 
gard the changes which they produce as among the most 
important to which the earth has been subjected, at least 
since it has been inhabited by man. A large number of 
the Polynesian Islands, and many of those in the Indian 
Ocean, have been constructed by these little animals. 
They are continually building extensive reefs, also, in va- 
rious forms and in diflerent positions. Ofl* the coast of 
Xew Holland there is a coral reef over one thousand 
miles in length. Great as are the changes now going on 
from the agency of these little architects, it is supposed 
that in what may be called the forming ages of our earth 
they had a still greater agency, in the formation of the 
limestone rocks which constitute so large a part of the 
crust of the globe. 

615. There is another order of Polypes called the As- 
ter oida, from the star-like appearance of the tentacles. 
The Red Corals, the " Organ-pipe Corals," the Sea Fans, 
etc., belong to this order. Some in this order verge to- 
ward the sponges. Their habits are, for the most part, 
so much like those of the other Polypes that I will not 
dwell on them. 

616. The proper place of the Sponges it is diflScult to 
determine. If they are really animals, they are of the 
lowest grade, exhibiting not the least signs of sensation. 



EADIATES. 



353 



They consist wholly of a substance which is considered, 
from the smell produced by burning it, to be much like 
the horny substance found in many animals. There are 
two kinds of pores — a vast number of minute pores, and 
here and there larger ones among them, termed vents. 
Examined in their living state, it is manifest that from 
the larger pores of the Sponges water is constantly pass- 
ing out in currents, and it is supposed that it as constant- 
ly passes in through the minute pores. This is analogous 
to some movements that occur in certain animals. The 
net-Avork of which sponge is composed is found, by ex- 
amination with the microscope, to be made up of fine 
tubes. One hundred and fifty difierent sjDecies have been 
described by Lamarck. 

617. In Fig. 274 is a representation of a section of a 



)^ ^'-' h ^% ^'''/ R^/;/y 




piece of sponge, exhibiting the branches which conduct 
the water from the minute interstices to the large vents. 
The currents which come out from these vents are ren- 
dered apparent by the minute particles of matter which 
happen to be in them, as represented in the figure. The 
Sponge lives on the water and what the water holds in 
solution, and for its growth it is therefore necessary that 
water should be constantly circulating through it in the 
manner which I have described. There is one species in 
which, the Sponge being of the shape of a bottle, the ab- 



354 NATURAL HISTORY. 

sorbiiig pores are all on the outside, while the vents are 
inside. The result is that there is a strong current of 
water constantly jDOuring out of the mouth of the bottle. 

Questions. — How do the Polypes differ from the other classes of Ra- 
diates in regard to locomotion ? Why were they so long supposed to 
be plants ? What is said of their construction ? What is said of the 
structure of the Hydra ? What of its mode of taking its prey ? What 
of its locomotion? What is stated by Trembley ? Describe the two 
ways in which Hydras are multiplied. What is said of mutilating 
them ? What of uniting two together? What is said of the Hclianthoi- 
da? Where are the Actinia? commonly found ? What is said of their 
multiplication from portions of their disk ? What is said of their mus- 
cular structure? What of their mouths? What of their voracity? 
What is the structure of their tentacles ? What is said of the skele- 
tons which some roly})es have ? How does their composition differ 
from that of the skeletons of common animals ? In what other re- 
spect do they differ ? How is the formation of the skeleton column 
exemplified in the Caryophyllia? Whence comes the supply of the 
material to make this skeleton ? What is said of the associated Pol- 
ypes as exemplified in the Astrea Viridis ? What is said of the form- 
ation of the coral reefs and islands? What of the agency of the coral 
animals in the forming ages of the earth? What is said of the Aster- 
oida ? What is said of the structure of the Sponges ? How many 
species are there ? Describe the arrangement of the Bottle Sponge. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 

It is my intention in this chapter to retouch some 
points which have been treated of, and also to bring out 
some others which may add to the interest of the gen- 
eral subject. 

618. The pupil has observed, as he has proceeded, the 
adaptation of each animal to its circumstances and to its 
mode of life. This has been seen both in classes of ani- 
mals and in individual cases. I will refer to a feAv ex- 
amples of this adaptation in classes. Birds are fitted in 
both their internal and external structure (as you saw in 



CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 355 

the first part of ChaiDter XII.) for flight in the air ; while 
the fishes are so constructed (§ 353-357) as to swim eas- 
ily in the water. And then, in those classes of birds that 
are designed in part for life on the water, there are spe- 
cial provisions for swimming in their webbed feet and 
other arrangements (§ 291). Some animals are carnivo- 
rous, while others are herbivorous, and others still eat a 
variety of food, and may even be omnivorous, like man. 
The adaptation of organization in these different cases 
has reference, as you have seen, both to the kind of food 
and to the mode of obtaining it. If it had reference 
merely to the former, it would be seen only in the teeth, 
the jaw, and the stomach. But in its reference to the 
latter, it is observed in the structure and arrangement of 
the organs of the senses, and even of the whole frame. 
For example, in the carnivorous animal of prey, there 
must be a full development of the senses of siglit, hear- 
ing, and smell ; a frame capable of quick movement ; 
strong claws, worked by stout muscles, to hold the prey ; 
teeth fitted to tear it in pieces, and a stomach altogether 
different from that of the herbivorous animals. 

619. The adaptations in relation to temperatin-e are 
very interesting. Animals that live in cold climates have 
coverings which differ greatly from those of animals liv- 
ing in warm countries. The elephant, with his scant)'- 
hairs, is in strong contrast in this respect with the shag- 
gy-coated bear. Our supply of furs comes from north- 
ern regions, from animals that could not withstand the 
cold Avithout such coverings. As the horse is a native 
of a warm climate, he requires the blanket in our winters, 
and for the same reason the cow and ox need to be bet- 
ter sheltered than is ordinarily done among the farmers 
of temperate climates. In the arctic regions, even ani- 
mals that are protected by a furry covering have also, as 
a farther defense against the cold, a good layer of fat, 
which not only keeps the heat in by its non-conducting 
property, but also aids in the production of heat. We 



356 NATURAL HISTORY. 

may notice in this connection, in the insect world, the 
special provisions against the cold in the cocoons which 
are to remain- through the winter to another season 

G20. The individual adaptations seen in the different 
species are endless in variety. Those which I have 
brought to your notice, in passing through the four sub- 
kingdoms of tlie animal Avorld, are exceedingly few in 
comparison with all that might be gathered up, and new 
ones are coming to view every day in the researches of 
zoologists. Each species has its peculiar habits, and, of 
course, its corresponding adaptations in its structure. 
The study in this respect has no end, and the fertility of 
the wisdom and skill of the Deity is seen to have no 
bounds. The humblest observer who enters this field 
may find many things that no one has yet recorded, and 
thus may be a contributor to zoological science. 

621. Of the individual adaptations I will notice a few 
of those only which are of a marked exceptional charac- 
ter. Tlie whale is a Mammal having lungs, and yet it 
lives in the water like the fishes. For this it must have 
an especial adaptation in the arrangement of the circu- 
lating system, as described in § 187. So also, as it is a 
warm-blooded animal, its heat must be kept from escap- 
ing too rapidly by a special provision, and this must be 
in consonance Avith its fish-like habits (§ 186). — The bat 
is a Mammal, and yet, as it is destined to get its liveli- 
hood on the wing and in the dark, it has peculiarly con- 
structed wings for this purpose (§ 58, 59, and 60). — Most 
fishes are shaped with reference to ease and rapidity of 
movement (§ 353). Hence they are like boats for rac- 
ing, long, spindle-shaped ; and they have no projections 
like a shoulder to prevent their gliding swiftly through 
the water. But there are some exceptions, as in the 
short, big-mouthed Lophius (Fig. 172). — Its habits ex- 
plain the reason of the excej^tion. The brain of man is 
but the fortieth or fiftieth part of the weight of his whole 



CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 357 

body, and yet it receives about the fifth or sixth part of 
all the blood in circulation, simply because the amount 
of thinking done there requires this supply to keep the 
instrument of thought in good condition. To prevent 
this great amount of blood from flowing too rapidly and 
forcibly into the brain, the arteries, as they enter the 
skull, are so arranged that the flow shall be circuitous 
rather than direct. Then, again, there is a farther spe- 
cial provision against the too free admission of blood into 
the brain in animals that hold their heads downward 
much of the time, as grazing animals. When we hold 
our heads downw^ard, very uneasy sensations are soon 
produced from the undue amount of blood in the head ; 
but in the grazing animal this effect is prevented by a di- 
vision of the arteries into a net-work before they enter 
the brain. In this connection I wdll also refer you to the 
remarkable provision against a sudden rush of blood to 
the head in the deer w^hen the circulation in the " velvet" 
is stopped (§ 164). 

622. The adaptations which we witness in the diflfer- 
ent conditions of animals that pass througli a full meta- 
morphosis are of exceeding interest. That the adapta- 
tions of a crawling worm sliould all be exchanged, dur- 
ing the sleep of the animal, for those of a beautiful flying 
insect (§ 405), is one of the most wonderful things in na- 
ture. Still more wonderful is the change of adaptation, 
when an animal fitted to live like a fish experiences, in 
the midst of a state of full activity, internal changes 
which prepare it at length to emerge with lungs and 
wings, leaving its skin behind it in the water, as exempli- 
fied in the musquito (§ 502). 

623. But adaptation is displayed in the most interest- 
ing manner in the relations of organization to the capa- 
bilities of animals. The more an animal knows, the more 
complicated is its structure, or, in other words, the more 
extensive is the machinery which is provided for the use 
of its mind. We see this both in the apparatus of the 



358 NATUKAL HISTOKY. 

senses aud in that of voluntary motion, and also in the 
nervous system, by which these two kinds of apparatus 
are connected with the mind.* In the lower orders of 
animals the senses are very imperfectly developed, and 
in some most of the senses are absent. Thus, in the Hy- 
dra (§ 599) and in the Actiniae (§ 576) there is no evi- 
dence of the existence of but one sense, that of touch. 
The Actiniae are, indeed, sensibly aifected by light, but 
this does not prove that they see. As we go upward in 
the scale we iind the apparatus of the senses generally 
more and more developed. Taking all of them into view, 
the senses are best developed in man, though some of 
them, for special purposes, liave a higher capacity in cer- 
tain animals than in him. Some may have a more acute 
smell, as the dog, or see farther, as the eagle ; but no an- 
imal has all the senses in such perfection as man. The 
same can be said of the muscular apparatus. The vari- 
ety of muscular action is greatest of all in man, while in 
some animals there are special muscular endowments for 
special purposes above anything of the kind to be found 
in him. The gradation in the nervous system is still 
more definitely marked. In man it has its fullest devel- 
opment ; and, as we go down in the scale, we at length 
come to animals that have no distinct brain, and finally 
to those in which, as the hydra, no trace of any thing 
like a nerve can be found. In these last nervous matter 
is presumed to exist because actions are performed which, 
in animals of a more defined organization, are known to 
be dependent upon nervous agency. 

624. Amid all the variations of structure to suit the 
different wants and capabilities of animals, the Creator 
has adopted certain general plans, so that order prevails 
throughout all the extreme variety of the animal king- 
dom. We can see this whether we take into view large 

* For the relations of the senses, the muscles, and the nervous sys- 
tem, I refer you to the chapter on the Nervous System in my ''First 
Book in Physiology." 



CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 359 

groups, as classes or sub-kingdoms, or smaller ones, as 
families or genera. It is in the typical forms that we 
have these plans fully brought to view ; while there is in 
the aberrant, in proportion to the degree in which they 
are so, a departure from these plans, or, rather, a modi- 
fication of them, to suit the particular wants and habits 
in each case. Thus, in the Vertebrates, the plan of the 
skeleton is very perfectly developed in the higher ani- 
mals, and especially in man. But the general features of 
the plan are the same in all this sub-kingdom. This may 
be seen if we take the skeleton as a whole, as illustrated 
in the first chapter, or if we look at some particular por- 
tion of it, as the arm and hand, as illustrated in regard 
to the flipper of a Whale (§ 185), the anterior extremity 
of the Dugong (§ 195), the wing of the Bat (§ 58), and 
the wing of birds (§ 198). In the Articulata, the ring- 
like arrangement, seen so decidedly in most of the ani- 
mals of this sub-kingdom, as the Centipede (§ 381), is not 
really given up in those where it seems to be, as in the 
Crab tribe ; but a careful observation shows that it is 
only modified by making some of the rings exceedingly 
broad, while others are made exceedingly narrow (§526). 
There is not here an abandonment of the general plan, 
but a departure or aberration from it to some extent, 
making an aberrant form, in distinction from the tyjDical 
forms where the ring-like arrangement is fully carried 
out. What I have thus said of the Vertebrates and the 
Articulates is essentially true of all parts of the animal 
kingdom. 

625. The great wonder is that so much uniformity of 
plan can be made consistent with such extreme variety, 
the minutiae of exact adaptation being in all cases fully 
carried out. There would have been a much smaller dis- 
play of wisdom and skill, if the same variety had been at- 
tained without the extended general plans which w^e see 
were adopted. None but omnipotent power could so 
connect endless variations in minutiae with so few typical 
forms and arrangements. 




360 NATURAL HISTORY. 

626. "Witli these general plans there is in every animal 
a marked relation of each part to every other part. Ev- 
ery bone, for example, not only has its exact relation to 
every other bone, but also to every other part and oi'gan. 
It is from this harmony existing in every animal frame 
that the zoologist is able to know the general structure 
and habits of an animal on inspecting a single bone or 
tooth belonging to it. For example, suppose that he 
picks up a tooth with two stout roots and a sharp cutting 
edge rising to a point, such as you see in Fig. 275. Let 

us see what he can know^ in regard to the 
animal to which this tooth belonged. First 
he would know that it was a Vertebrate, 
for no teeth at all like this are ever found 
in an animal outside of the Vertebrate class- 
es, lie knows, therefore, that this animal 
had a brain and spinal marrow, that its 
Fig. 275. senses were well developed, and that its 
blood was red. Then the two long roots show that the 
tooth was deeply implanted in a double socket, and that 
the animal was, therefore, a Mammal, for this arrange- 
ment is seen only in that class. The cutting edge of the 
orown indicates that the animal was a carnivorous quad- 
ruped, and that its jaws moved upon each other with a 
scissors-like motion (§ 67), and not a grinding one, as in 
the herbivorous quadrupeds. It may be inferred, also, 
that the feet were not hoofed, but armed with claws for 
securing the prey, and that the muscles both of the limbs 
and head were very strong. The general shape of the 
animal (§ 70) can also be made out, and its size can be 
estimated from the size of the tooth. The kind of stom- 
ach w^hich it had can also be known (§ 68). Baron Cu- 
vier had great skill in such studies. From a single bone, 
or even a piece of one, he could picture an entire skele- 
ton, and describe the character and the habits of the an- 
imal. 

627. The general plans adopted by the Creator should, 



CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 361 

of course, be our guide in the classification of animals, so 
that it may be a natural and not an artificial classifica- 
tion. In studying nature we should always endeavor to 
read correctly the traces of the mind of the Creator. 

628. The distribution of animals in the various regions 
of the earth is a very interesting subject, but my limits 
will allow of but a brief notice of it. Man is the only 
animal that is found in every part of the earth. He is 
thus a cosmopolite, because he has a mind that can con- 
trive clothing and habitations suitable to every variety 
of climate. Xext to hun in general diffusion are some 
of those animals which are domesticated by him, and also 
some which follow him and dwell in his habitations, as 
the mouse, the rat, the fly, etc. Most animals are limited 
to certain regions, differing, however, in the extent of 
their diffusion — some having a wide range, while others 
are confined to comparatively narrow limits. Those an- 
imals which are found in any particular region or coun- 
try are said to constitute its Fauna, as the flowers found 
there make up its Flora. We speak of the Faunas of 
the arctic, the temperate, and the tropic regions. Then, 
also, we subdivide these into Faunas of portions of these 
regions of greater or less extent, according to circum- 
stances. The dividing lines between the different zoo- 
logical provinces thus marked out are by no means im- 
passable boundaries, for there is generally a mingling of 
animals near the borders of two adjacent Faunas. Thus, 
although the Fauna of the United States and that of the 
region west of the Rocky Mountains are very distinct, 
yet these mountains do not effect an entire separation, 
for some animals of either Fauna are found on both sides 
of the range. 

629. The Faunas of the arctic region have compara- 
tively few species, but the number of individuals of each 
is often immense. Especially is this true of the fishes and 
the birds. The birds are mostly of the aquatic tribes — 
gulls, cormorants, ducks, petrels, etc. All the animals 

Q 



o02 NATURAL lilSTOKY. 

are of a dull color. Xot a bird of bright plumage is to 
be found. Of terrestrial auimals, the most noticeable are 
the White Bear, the Reindeer, the White Fox, etc. ; and 
of the aquatic Mammals, the Seals and the Whales. There 
are no reptiles, few insects, and no coral animals. 

630. In the Faunas of the temperate regions there is 
much greater variety than in those of the arctic. Ter- 
restrial animals abound here. The birds exhibit consid- 
erable variety of color. One of the prominent features 
of the Fauna of the temperate zone is the constant change 
Avhich is going on in it from the variety in the seasons. 
Especially is this true of the northern portion. In the 
colder months insect life has retired for hibernation, and 
vegetable life is, for the most part, in a similar state. 
The sources of livelihood for many animals are thus cut 
otf. The birds, therefore, migrate to warmer regions, 
and many of the mammals hibernate ; and in the spring 
the mammals wake up, and the birds return, making na- 
ture, which was so still in winter, vocal again. 

631. Abundance, variety in form, and brilliancy of col- 
ors are the distinguishing characteristics of the tropical 
Faunas. " All the principal types of animals," say Agas- 
siz and Gould, " are represented, and all contain numer- 
ous genera and species. We need only to refer to the 
tribe of Humming-birds, which numbers not less than 300 
species. It is very important to notice that here are con- 
centrated the most perfect, as well as the oldest types of 
all the classes of the animal kingdom. The tropical re- 
gion is the only one occupied by the Quadrumana, the 
herbivorous Bats, the great Pachydermata, such as the 
Elephant, the Hippopotamus, and the Tapir, and the whole 
family of Edentata. Here, also, are found the largest of 
the Cat tribe, the Lion and Tiger. Among the Birds, we 
may mention the Parrots and Toucans as essentially trop- 
ical ; among the Reptiles, the largest Crocodiles and gi- 
gantic Tortoises ; and, finally, among the articulated an- 
imals, an immense variety of the most beautiful insects. 



CONCLUDING OBSEBVATIONS. 363 

The marine animals, as a whole, are equally superior to 
those of other regions ; the seas teem with Crustaceans 
and numerous Cephalopods, together with an infinite va- 
riety of Gasteropods and Acephala. The Echinoderms 
there attain a magnitude and variety elsewhere unknown ; 
and, lastly, the Polypes there display an activity of which 
the other zones present no example. Whole groups of 
islands are surrounded with coral reefs formed by these 
little animals." 

632. This variety is made more striking by the fact 
that each continent has many animals in its tropical re- 
gion peculiar to itself. Thus the Girafie and Hippopota- 
mus appear only in Africa ; and that strange animal, the 
Sloth, is found only in America. The 300 species of Hum- 
ming-birds are exclusively American, nearly all of them 
being tropical. The Sunbirds, on the other hand, which 
are somewhat like them, do not appear at all in America, 
but are widely scattered over Asia, Africa, and the isl- 
ands of the Pacific. 

633. Some of the local Faunas have prominent pecul- 
iarities. The Fauna of Brazil is exceedingly rich, with 
its gigantic Reptiles, its Monkeys, its Edentata, its bril- 
liant Humming-birds, and its wonderful variety of insects. 
There is no part of the world that has so peculiar a Fauna 
as Australia. Here are great numbers of Marsupial ani- 
mals. Here, also, is that strange animal, the Duck-billed 
Platypus (§ 133) ; and here, too, is the Black Swan, sup- 
posed to be an impossibility till it was found in that sin- 
gular country. 

634. The pupil has by no means obtained an adequate 
idea of the abundance and variety of the animal kingdom 
from what he has seen in this book of its difierent depart- 
ments. In so small a space only a few specimens of each 
group could come under consideration. That you may 
have some idea of the extent of the field which zoology 
has opened, I will give you some statements of the num- 
bers of animals from Agassiz and Gould. The number 



o64 NATUKAL lllSTOKY. 

v( species of Vertebrates is probably 20,000, of which 
the Mammals are 2000, the Birds 6000, the Reptiles 2000, 
and the Fishes 8000 or 10,000. There are probably over 
15,000 Mollll^^ks. The Insects are the most numerous 
class of animals, there being already collected from 60 
to 80,000 species. Of all the Articulates there are about 
100,000 now known, and it is safe to compute the whole 
munber at 200,000. If we add to the above 10,000 for 
tlie l\adiates, we shall have about 250,000 species. It is 
also estimated by Agassiz that there is about the same 
number of si)ecies of fossil animals ; that is, those which 
are not now in existence, but which are known to have 
existed by the remains that we find of them in the rocks 
and in the earth. I have noticed a few of these in pass- 
ing, as the]Mastodon (g 139), the Iguanodon (§ 326), and 
the Annnonites (§551). 

635. But fiirther than all this, we can get no adequate 
idea of the abundance of animal life if we do not take 
into view the minuter living forms, as well as those 
which are ordinarily noticed. These I have not consid- 
(.•red, because it would lead me into too wide a field. 
Quite large portions of the earth — of its rocks, and mount- 
ains, and sand, and mud, and dust — are made up in part 
of the remains of 7m?inte animals, called, therefore, ani- 
malcula% or, in English, animalcules. Some of these are 
so small that their structure can not be made out except 
by the aid of the microscope, and some can not even be 
seen at all by the naked eye. For example, the stone 
used for building in Paris, and in all the country round 
it, is so full of the shells of an animalcule, that there are 
58,000 in a cubic inch, or three thousand millions in a 
cubic yard. This animal belongs to a group which are 
called Foraminifera, because their shells are full of little 
foramens or openings. The substance within the cham- 
bers of the shell is mostly a translucent jelly, and through 
the openings branch out root-like legs, on which it is cu- 
rious to see the animal walk. Foraminifera, perhaps of 



CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 



365 



the size of the head of a small pin, may sometimes be 
seen thus walking on the glass walls of an aquarium; and 
a great variety of species can be found in the sand of 
most sea-coasts, as any one may see if he examine a hand- 
ful of it with a pocket lens. In the chalk formations 
there are remains of even smaller animals than tliese. 
Ehrenberg, on examining chalk very minutely divided, 
found in it some many-chambered shells, some of them 
whole and some in fragments. He calculated that there 
were a million in every cubic inch, or ten millions in ev- 
ery pound. He was able to discern them even in the 
glazing of a visiting card, although the chalk in this case 
had been subjected to such minute division that one 
would suppose all trace of organization to have been lost. 
636. The earth in and about the city of Richmond, 
Virginia, is tilled with various shells of xVnimalculoe. A 
portion of one of these shells, as seen through a power- 
ful microscope, is given in Fig. 276. There are various 
species of this shell, called, very appropri- 
ately, Coscinodiscus (sieve-like disk), va- 
rying in size from the one hundredth to 
the one thousandth of an inch in diame- 
ter. The guano brought from the island 
of Ichaboe is found to contain multitudes 
of this and other shells, making a beauti- 
ful display as a little of the dust is placed 
in the field of the microscope. These 
shells are the remains of animalculoe that 
lived in the water and w^ere eaten by fish- 
es. Then these fishes were devoured by 
sea-birds ; so that these shells must have 
Fig. 27G. passed through the process of digestion 

twice, and after that were exposed in the guano-bed to 
the ordinary causes of decay perhaps for centuries ; and 
yet, says Professor Brocklesby, " under all these influ- 
ences they remain unchanged, and the eye of the natural- 
ist at last detects these minute structures, still possess- 




366 NATURAL HISTORY. 

ing their original beauty, with the delicate tracery of 
their rich configuration, almost as sharp and clear as it 
was, perhaps, a thousand years ago." 

637. The Tripoli, or rotten-stone of Bohemia, which, 
when ground, is used as a polishing powder, is full of 
flinty shells, which are so minute that forty thousand mil- 
lions are contained in a single cubic inch. Other in- 
stances, in great number, could be cited, from various 
quarters of the world, of large deposits of the remains of 
animalcules, in rocks, in eartli, in peat-bogs, and in mud. 
Well does Lamarck say of these deposits, that " it is by 
means of the smallest objects that Nature every where 
produces her most remarkable and astonishing phenom- 
ena. Whatever she may seem to lose in point of volume 
in the production of living bodies, is amply made up by 
the number of individuals, which she multiplies with ad- 
mirable promptitude, to infinity. The remains of such 
minute animals have added much more to the mass of 
materials which compose the exterior of the crust of the 
globe than the bodies of Elephants, Hippopotami, and 
Whales." In § 614 I spoke of the agency of coral ani- 
mals in building up portions of the earth by the forma- 
tion of their skeletons ; but the agency of these animal- 
cules, by means of their remains, is vastly greater. 

638. The name Infusoria was given to animalcules be- 
cause they abound in infusions of decomposing vegetable 
or animal substances. By some, however, this term is 
confined to those animalcules which have cilia, by which 
they swim through water. An abundance of these can 
be obtained in warm weather from the surface of water 
in ponds, especially where there is a reddish or green 
tinge, or a slimy layer. In Fig. 277 you have a variety 
of these Infusoria. They move about very freely in the 
water by means of their cilia. " These movements," says 
Carpenter, " are extremely various in their character in 
different species ; and when a number of dissimilar forms 
are assembled in one drop of water, the spectacle is en- 



COXCLUDIXG OBSERYATIO]SrS. 



367 




Fig. 2TT. 

tertaiiiiug. Some propel themselves directly forward 
with a velocity which appears (when thus highly magni- 
fied) like that of an arrow, so that the eye can scarcely 
follow their movement ; while others drag their bodies 
slowly along, like the Leech. Some make a fixed point 
of some portion of the body, and revolve aromid it with 
great rapidity ; while others scarcely present any appear- 
ance of animal motion. Some move forward by a uni- 
form series of gentle undulations or vibrations ; while 
others seem to perform consecutive leaps, of no small ex- 
tent compared with the lengtli of their bodies. In some 
instances the body is furnished with stifiT bristles and 
hooks, by the agency of which the animalcule is enabled 
to run and leap upon the stems and leaves of aquatic 
plants. In short, there is scarcely any kind of movement 
which is not practiced by these animalcules. They have 
evidently the power of steering clear of obstacles in their 
course, and of avoiding each other when swimming in 
close proximity. By what kind of sensibihty the w^onder- 
ful precision and accuracy of their movements is guided 
is yet very doubtful." One of the most singular of these 
Infusoria is the Baccillaria Paradoxa, which is composed 
of several parts arranged like a sliding ruler. It moves 
along by sliding these parts upon each other, first thrust- 
ing them forward, then closing those in the rear upon the 
part farthest in front. 



308 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



639. Though most of the Infusoria move freely about 
ill fluids, some are attached, Uke Polypes, to some solid 
base. Many of them are not, however, always thus at- 
tached, but liave the power of loosing themselves from 
their attachment to swim off by their cilia to find some 
otlier locality. This is the case with the Bell-shaped An- 
imalcules, one species of which is represented in Fig. 
2T^. The body of the animal is shaped like a bell, and 




Fig. 278. — Bell-shaped Animalcules. 

its margin, which is its mouth, is fringed with cilia. The 
actual length of its body varies, in different individuals, 
from the one two hundred and eightieth (gw) of an inch 
to the one five hundred and seventieth {s-to)- The tiny 
stem bv which each animalcule is attached has a muscle 



CONCLUDIXG OBSERVATIOXS. 369 

in its whole length by which its direction and length can 
be altered. When the little creature is alarmed, it sinks 
down quickly to the place of its attachment by coiling its 
stem, or cable, as it may be called. In some cases, as at 
a a a, there are two animalculce on one stem, one hav- 
ing grown out from the other, after the manner of some 
of the coral Polypes (§612). You see in the figure some 
stems without any animalcules. Here they have sepa- 
rated themselves from their attachment and swum away. 
It is an emigration to better their condition and begin a 
new colony.* 

640. The field to which I have in this book introduced 
the pupil is a very broad and fruitful one, and on every 
side invites, in the most attractive manner, your investi- 
gation. Go, then, into the garden and the field, to the 
sea-side and the river-side, to the pond and the bog, and 
watch the movements of animals, and gather materials 
for observation at liome. The Aquaria, now so properly 
becoming fashionable, furnish admirable means for carry- 
ing on some of these observations. Even with but a 
small portion of your time devoted to the investigation 
of nature, you will soon find that you do not need to go 
to a museum to see the wonderful and the beautiful cre- 
ations of Almighty power, but that these are all around 
you, and even in the dust beneath your feet. 

641. The animal kingdom is a great harmonious whole, 
with all its forms, from the minute Infusoria to the mon- 
strous Elephants and Whales, having fixed relations to 
each other. These relations are not all known, but more 
and more of them are every day discovered. And amid 
all the apparent confusion and hazard attending the nat- 
ural increase on the one hand, and the destruction effect- 
ed on the other by the voracity of animals and other 

* For more full information in regard to the Infusoria, I would rec- 
ommend to both teacher and pupil a work by Professor Brocklesby, 
entitled *' Views of the Microscopic World," published by Pratt, Oak- 
lev & Co. 

Q2 



370 NATURAL HISTOKY. 

causes, a superintending Providence raaintains the gen- 
eral harmony, preventing any dangerous permanent in- 
crease or destruction of any species. Multitudes have, 
indeed, been destroyed in ages long gone by ; but this 
was for definite purposes, which the geologist has been 
able, for the most part, to decipher. 

642. Not only have all animals relations to each other, 
but they have relations, direct or indirect, near or re- 
mote, to man. Tlie earth is his residence, and all things 
in it were made for liim. Hence it is that in his organ- 
ization tlie same general principles are in play which we 
find exhibited in the animals to Avhich he bears the rela- 
tions referred to. But while he is thus linked to the an- 
imal existences around Iiim, he is the only animal on the 
earth that is destined to live any where else. He is link- 
ed to other liiglier existences by the possession of a soul, 
which has been very properly said to be " that side of 
our nature which is in relation with the Infinite ;" and, 
by virtue of this, when his relation to the animals of this 
world ceases, another and a more glorious body is pro- 
vided for him with adaptations fitted to his new and 
eternal condition. 

Questions. — What is said of adaptation ? What of it in birds and 
fishes ? What of it in relation to carnivorous animals ? How are 
the coverings of animals adapted to climate ? What is said of the fat 
of animals in the arctic regions? What example of adaptation to 
temperature is g'ven from the insect world? What is said of the va- 
riety of individual adaptations ? How is the organization of the Whale 
adapted to its mode of life ? What is said of the Bat ? What of 
fishes ? What is stated in regard to the brain of man and of grazing 
animals? What in regard to the '* velvet" of the Deer? What is 
said of adaptation in relation to the metamorphosis of animals ? What 
is said of adaptation in regard to the capabilities of animals ? What 
are the relations of the senses, the muscles, and the neiwous system to 
each other ? What is said of the senses of animals ? What of their 
muscles ? What of the nervous system ? What is said of the general 
plans of the Creator ? Illustrate by reference to the Vertebrates and 
to the Articulates. What is there especially wonderful in the carry- 
ing out of these plans ? What is said of the mutual relations of the 



CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 371 

parts of an animal ? Give in full the illustration in regard to a tooth. 
What is said of Cuvier ? How should the classification of animals be 
made out ? Why is man a cosmopolite ? What animals come next 
to him in extent of diffusion? What is said of the distiibution of 
most animals ? What is a Fauna ? What is said of the Faunas of 
the arctic regions ? Of the temperate ? Of the tropic ? What cir- 
cumstance increases the variety in the tropical Faunas ? What is 
said of some of the local Faunas ? Give the statement of the num- 
bers of species in different departments of the animal kingdom ? 
What are fossil animals ? What is said of their number ? Mention 
some that have been noticed in this book, and give some facts in re- 
gard to them. What is said of minute animals? Give the statement 
in regard to the shells of Foraminifera. Describe the structure and 
habits of these animals. What is said of the chalk foiTnations? 
What is said of the shells of the Coscinodiscus ? Of the Tripoli ? 
What of animalcular deposits ? Why are animalcules termed Infu- 
soria ? To what animalcules do some confine this term ? Where 
can these be obtained? What is said of their forms and motions? 
What is said of the Baccillaria Paradoxa ? How are some Infusoria 
like Polypes? Give the statement in regard to the Bell-shaped Ani- 
malcules. What is said of the field opened to you in the observation 
of nature ? What of the mutual relations of the animal world ? What 
of the presentation of them by Providence ? What of the relations of 
man to animals? What of his higher relations ? 



GLOSSARY. 



(The numbers refer to the paragraphs where the terms may be found explained.) 



Aberrant 70 

Acalephs 583 

Acephalous 564: 

Amphibious 100 

Animalcules 635 

Aphaniptera 419 

Aptera 419 

Aquatic 100 

Arboreal 52 

Asteroida 615 

Aurelia 486 

Bimana 24 

Branchia 535 

Buccinidx 562 

Byssus 566 

Canidae 64 

Carapace 10 

Carnivora 64 

Cephalopoda 550 

Cephalo-thorax 299 

Cephalous 550 

Cheiroptera 24 

Chrysalis 486 

Cilia 582 

Cirrhipoda 532 

Class 21 

Coleoptera 419 

Conchifera 564 

Conirostres 236 

Crinoidea 593 

Crustacea 521 

Decapoda 532 

Dentirostres 236 

Digitigrade 92 

Diptera 419 

Diurnal 216 

Dorsi-branchiata 535 

Echino-derm ata 583 

Edentata 64 

Elvtra 398 



Fauna 628 

FeYidx 64 

Fissirostres 236 

Foraminifera 635 

Fossil 634 

Gallinaceous 275 

Ganglion 15 

Gasteropoda 550 

Genus 21 

Haustellate 393 

Helianthoida 606 

Hemiptera 419 

Herbivorous 67 

Hymenoptera 419 

Im ago 403 

Incubation 205 

Infusoria 628 

Insectivora 64 

Larva 403 

Lepidoptera 419 

Mammal 23 

Mandible 214 

Mantle o6Q 

Marsupial 64 

Mollusk 16 

Mustelidae 64 

Nacre 554 

Xeuroptera 419 

Nictitating 207 

Nocturnal 216 

Omnivorous 93 

Order 21 

Orthoptera 419 

Oviparous 23 

Pachyderaiata 64 

Palpi 394 

Pedimana 24 

Phocidag 64 

Phytozoa 583 

Plantigrade 92 



374 



GLOSSARY. 



Plastron 314 

Pro-legs 479 

Pteropoda 550 

Pulmonifera 5G0 

Pupa 402 

Quadrumana 42 

Radiate 17 

Rhviichota 491 

Rodentia 64 

Ruminantia 64 

Siphuncle 554 



Species 21 

Sub-kingdom 21 

Tenuirostres 236 

Terrestrial 100 

Tunicata 564 

Typical 70 

Unguiculata 24 

Ungulata 24 

Ursidije 64 

Vertebra 3 



INDEX. 



(The numbers refer to the pages.) 



Acalephs 341 ' 

Acephalous Mollusks 328 

Actiniae 334, 349| 

Aculeata 274 

Adaptation 354 

Adjutant 177i 

Agile Gibbon 33 

Air-bladder of Fishes 211; 

Air-cells of Birds 118j 

Albatross 184 

Alligators 195 

Ambergris Ill 

Ambulatoria 255 

AmericanRace 28 

Ammonites 320 

Amphibia 204 

Anchovy 221 

Anemones, Sea 334 

Angora Goat 95 

Animalcules 364 

Ant-eaters 73 

Antelopes 99 

Antennae 230 

Ant-lion 267 

Ants 276: 

Ants, White 265 

Aphaniptera 298 

Aphidse 291 

Apoda 221 

Apples of Sodom 271 

Aptera 298 

Apteryx 171 

Arachnida 299 

Argonauts 321 

Argus Pheasant 169 

Armadilloes 74 

Articulates 19,225 

Articulates, circulation in 226 

Articulate.s, nervous svstem of 19 
Ass r 85 



Astrea Viridis 35 1 

Auks 182 

Avocets 178 

Axis Deer 98 

Baboons 34 

Babyroussa 82 

Badgers 61 

Bald Eagle 129 

Banxrings 68 

Barnacles 311 

Barn Owl 137 

Batrachia 204 

Bats 39 

Baxillaria Paradoxa 367 

Bearded Vulture 136 

Bears 58 

Beavers 71 

Bedbugs 293 

Bees 278 

Beetles 246 

Bell-shaped Animalcules 368 

Berenice 286 

Beroe / 342 

Birds 115 

Bison 91 

Bivalves 317 

Blackbirds 152 

Blind Worm 200 

Bloodhound 51 

Blubber of the Whale 109 

Bluebird 148 

Blue Jay 143 

Blue Stocking 178 

Boas 204 

Bobolink 142 

Book Lice 266 

Book Scorpion 306 

Bovidae 90 

'Bower-bird 144 



r{76 INDEX. 

Brahmin Bull OT Circulation in Brain 356 

Brown Thrasher 152 Circulation of Articulates 226 

Brush Turkey 170 Circulation of Crocodiles 194 

Buccinidaj 327 Circulation of Fishes 209 

Buffaloes 91 'Circulation of Mammals 189 

Bustards 1 73 Circulation of Mollusks 319 

Butcher-birds 141, 448 Circulation of Reptiles 189 

Buttertlies 285 Cirrhipoda....^ 311 

Buzzards 183 Civet Cats 49 

Bvssus 330 Clams 332 

IClimbing Birds 161 

Cabinet Beetle 249, Clio Borealis 322 

Cachelot llOjClothes Moths 288 

Caddice Flies 268 Coaita Spider Monkey 36 

Camelopards 107:Cobra di Capello 203 

Camols 103 Cochineal 292 

Canida- 50 Cockles 331 

Canker Worms 284 Cockroaches 253 

Capabilities of Animals, adaj)- jCocoons 238 

tation in relation to 357 Cold-blooded Vertebrates 187 

Capricorn Beetles 250 Coleoptera 245 

Capridiv 95 Colubrine Snakes 202 

Capybara 72 Condor 135 

Carapace 18 Cone-billed Perchers 142 

Carni vora 43 Cone family of Mollusks 327 

Carrier Pigeons 168 Coral 350 

Carrion Beetles 248|Cormorant 185 

Caryophyllia 35 1 , Coscinodiscu« 365 

Cashmere Goats 95 Cowries 327 

Cassowary 17l|Crabs 308 

Caterpillar-hunters 247|Cranes 175 

Caterpillars 282 Craw of Pigeon 166 

Cats 49, Creepers 160 

Caucasian Rac^ 27^ Crickets 256 

Cecropia Moth 241 Crinoidea 340 

Cedar-bird 153 Crocodiles 193 

Centipede 225 Crop of Birds 120 

Cervidae 96 Cross-bills 146 

Cetacea 108 Crotalidse 202 

Chalk formations 365 Crows 143 

Chameleon 196;Crusader Carrion Beetle 249 

Cheese-hoppers 293;Crustacea 367 

Cheiroptera 23, 29 1 Cuckoos 164 

Chevaliers , 286,Curculios 251 

Chickadee 148JCursores 170 

Chimpanzee SllCursoria 253 

Chipping-bird 142: Cuttlefish 320 

Chrvsalids 236 

Chrysididse 272;Day-flies 264 

Cicadas 290|Decapoda 309 

Cilia.... 337lDeer 96 



IXDEX. 



3V7 



Dentirostres 147 

Dipper 151 

Diptera 293 

Divers 182 

Dogs 50 

Dolphins 112 

Domestication 28, 5 1 

Dorsi-branchiata 312 

Doves 165 

I 

Eagles 127 

Earthworm 313 

Earwigs 254 

Echidna 79 

Echinus 339 

Edentata 73 

Eels 221 

Egg, formation of Bird in 121, 181 

Eggs of Cruslacea 308 

Eggs of Fishes 215 

Eggs of Insects 233 

Eggs of Shark 216 

Eider Duck 121 

Electrical Eel 222 

Elephant 80 

Elephant Seal C4 

Elks 97 

Elytra 232 

Emu 171 

Entellus 33 

Entozoa 315 

Ephemerida3 264 

Ermine 56 

Ethiopian Race 28 

Eyes of Camel 104 

Eyes of Felidaj and Ruminants 90 

Eyes of Fishes 212 

Eyes of Insects 230 

Eyes of Spiders 305 

! 

Falcons 126 

Father-long-legs 306 

Fauna 361 

Feathers, structure of 116 

Feet of Beavers 71 

Feet of Camels 104 

Feet of Elephants 80 

Feet of Felidse 45 

Feet of Goatsucker 1 55 

Feet of Insects 232 

Feet of Jacanas 179! 



Feet of Moles 67 

Feet of Monkeys 30 

Feet of Opossums 76 

Feet of Otters 57 

Feet of Ruminants 88 

Feet of Seals 62 

Feet of Spiders 302 

Feet of Starfishes 338 

Feet of Swimming Birds 179 

Felidjs 45 

Finches 142 

Fire-flies 250 

Fire Hangbird 143 

Fishes 208 

Fishes, abundance of. 214 

Fishes, circulation in 209 

Fishes, eggs of 215 

Fishes, shape of. 210, 356 

Fishes, skeletons of 212 

Fishing Hawk 129 

Fissirostrcs 154 

Flamingo 181 

Flatfish 220 

Fleas 298 

Flies 293 

Flipper of Whale 109 

Flounders 221 

Flv-catchers 152 

Flying-fish 211 

Flying Dragon 199 

Flying Lemur 39 

Flying, mechanism of 117 

Foot of Mollusks 318 

Foraminifera 364 

Formicidaj 276 

Fossils 364 

Fowls 168 

Franklin on American Eagle 130 

Frigate Pelican 187 

Frog-hoppers 291 

Frogs 206 

Gall-flies 270 

Gasteropods 324 

Gazelles 101 

Gecko 198 

Geese 180 

Gibbon, Agile 33 

Gilded Dandv 252 

Gills 209 

Girafd' 107 



378 



INDEX. 



Gizzard of Birds 119 lanthina 333 

Gizzard of Insects 231|Ibex 95 

Glutton 6l|lbis 177 

Gnu 103 Ichneumon family of Insects.. 272 

Goats 95 Ichneumons 49 

Goatsucker 1-12, 154 Iguanas 198 

Golden Eagle 127JIguanodon 199 

Goldfinch 143;Imago 235 

Goshawk ]3l|lnfusoria 366 

Gossamer Spiders 303^Insectivora 66 

Gralhitores 173:Insects 225 

Grasshoppers 257lnsects, digestive organs of.... 231 

Gravedigger Beetle 249jlnsects, distribution of 234 

Greatfoots 170|Insects, metamorphosis of 235 

Grebes 182!lnsects, respiration of 228 

Grizzly Bear 59jltch animal 306 

Grosbeaks 143llvory 81 

Grouse 169 

Gulls 183'jacanas 179 

Gyrfalcon 126: Jackals 54 

I Jaguar 48 

Hairworms 315'Jays 143 

Half-winged Insects 289 Jelly-fishes 341 

Halibut 22l[jerboas 71 

Hand, capabilities of. 24, 29 John Dory 21 

Hares 72 Jumping Insects., 

Hawks 13l| 

Hawksbill Turtle 193jKalong Bat 

Hedgehog 68iKangaroo 

Helianthoida 349jKatydids 

Hemerobiidte 267iKingbird 

Hemiptera 289 1 Kingfisher 

Hermit Crabs 310|Kinkajou. 

Herons , 



256 

42 

76 

257 

152 

157 

62 

176jKites 131 



Herrings 221 

Hippopotamus 84 

Hive Bees 279 

Honey-dew 292 

Honey-suckers 160 

Hoopoe 160 

Horn-bills 146 

Horn Bug 249 

Horned Horse 103 

Horse 84 

Howling Monkeys 37 

Humble Bees...." 278 

Humming-birds 158 

Hvaenas 55 

Hydra 345 

Hymenoptera 269 



Kudu 102 

Labyrinthic Spider 304 

Lac*^. 292 

Lady-birds 246 

Lsemodipoda 311 

Lampreys 222 

Language of Man and Ani- 
mals 27 

Lapwing 1 74 

Larva 235 

Leaf-eaters 252 

Leeches 315 

Legs of Birds 122 

Legs of Crustacea 307 

Legs of Wading Birds 173 

Lemuridae 37 



INDEX. 379 

Leopards 48'Mnd-wasp 275 

Lepidoptera 28l!Musk Deer 99 

Lightning Spring Beetle 250 Musk Ox 94 

Limnsea Spiralis 324 Musquitoes 295 

Limpets 325 Musquitoes, eggs of 296 

Lions 46 Musquitoes, proboscis of 296 

Lizards 196 Mustelidse 55 

Llamas 1061 

Locusts 258 Nacre 322 

Long-eared Bat 40 Naked-eyed Lizards 201 

Lophius 219 Narwhal 113 

Loris 38 Natatores 179 

Louse 298 Nautilus 321 

Lynxes 48 Nest of Social Wasp 276 

! Net-winged Insects 261 

Malay Race 28 Neuroptera 261 

Mammals 22 Newts 207 

Man, hand of 24jNight-hawk 155 

Man, relation of to Animal | Nightingale 148 

Kingdom 24 

Man, skeleton of 14jOcean Snail 333 

Man, superiority of, to Ani- Opossums 25, 76 

mals ", 25-27 Orang-outang 32 

Mandrill 35 Oriole 143 

Manidae 73|Orthoptera 253 

Mantis Religiosa 254 Oryx 102 

Manyplies 89|Osprey 129 

Marmosets 37 Ostriches 170 

Marsupials 76 1 Otters 57 

Martins 156jOunce 48 

Mason Spider 304|Ovida3 95 

Mastodon 81 Owls 136 

Medusa 341 Ox 90 

Melliferous Aculeata 2781 Oyster-catcher 1 74 

Membrane-w^inged Insects .... 269jOysters 330 

Mermaids 114| 

Metamorphosis of Insects 235 1 Pachydermata 80 

Migration of Birds 123 1 Palm' Weevils 252 

Migration of Fishes 215|Palpi 230 

Mocking-birds 150|Pangolins 73 



Mole-hills 67 

Moles (jQ 

Mollusks 316 

Mongolian Race 28 

Monitors 199 



Paradise, Birds of 145 

PaiTots 162 

Pearl Oysters 331 

Pectens 331 

Pe dim ana 29 



Monkeys 33jPelicans 185 

Moschidse 98 Pellet Beetles 24^ 



Mother Carey's Chickens 183 

Moths 287 

Mound Birds 121 

Mouse 70 



Penguins 183 

Perchers 139 

Perching of Birds 122 

iPeregrine Falcon 127 



380 



INDEX. 



Petrels 183 

Pheasants 168 

Phocida? 62 

Phosphorescence cf Sea 342 

Ph ytozoa 337 

Pigeons 1 6."> 

Pine Marten 56 

Plans in the Animal Creation 358 

Phmt-lice 11)1 

Plastron IDl 

Platv})ns 78 

Plovers 174 

Plumage of Birds 123 

Polar Bear T)') 

Polvpes 344 

Polyzoa 3;^;] 

Porcnj)ine 71 

Porpoise 112 

Prawns 310 

Proboscis of Elephniit 80 

Proboscis of Insects 229 

Proboscis of Monke v 34 

Pteropoda * 322 

Puffins 182 

Puma 48 

Pupa 235 

Quadrupeds 43 

Quails 169 

Eaccoon 60 

Kadiates 334 

Rails 179 

Raptores 125 

Raptoria 254 

Rasores 1 64 

Rats 70 

Rattlesnakes r 202| 

Ravens 144 

Rays 223| 

Razor-shell 332^ 

Redbird 143| 

Reindeer 97| 

Reptiles 187| 

Reptiles, brain of. 190^ 

Reptiles, circulation in 189 

Respiration of Actinias 336 1 

Respiration of Arachnida 300 

Respiration of Fishes 208 

Respiration of Insects 228 ' 

Respiration of Mollusks... 319, 330 



Respiration of Whales 1 09 

Rhinoceros 83 

Rhinoceros Birds 84 

Ricebirds 143 

Robins 150 

Rodentia 68 

Roc of Fishes 215 

Rooks 144 

Rorqual 112 

Rotifera 315 

Kotten Stone 366 

Ru])y-tailed Flies 272 

Ruminantia 87 

Huminantia, eyes of 90 

Ruminantia, stomach of 88 

Running Birds 170 

Rusty Vapor Moth 288 

Sable 56 

Salamanders 207 

Saltatoria 257 

Sardines 221 

Sawflies 274 

Scale Insects 292 

Scale-winged Insects 281 

Scallops 331 

Scansores 161 

Scavenger Beetles 248 

Scorpions 299 

Scratching Birds 164 

Sea-cows 114 

Sea Cucumbers 341 

Sea Eggs 339 

Sea Fans 352 

Seahorse 218 

Seals 62 

Sea, phosphorescence of 342 

Sea Unicorns 113 

Secretary Bird 130 

Senses of Birds 121 

Senses of Fishes 212 

Senses of Insects 230 

Senses of Radiates 336 

Senses of Serpents 201 

Serpents 201 

Serpula 312 

Sertularia 348 

Seventeen-year Locusts 291 

Shad 221 

Sheath-bills 170 

Sheath- winged Insects 245 



INDEX. 381 

Sheep 95 Swallows 155 

Shells 317 Swans 181 

Shield-louse 292 Swift 155 

Shrew Mouse 67 Swimming Birds 179 

Shrikes 148 Swordfish 217 

Shrimps 310 

Sickle-bill 178 Tadpoles 204 

Silkworms 238 Tail of Birds 123 

Simiada3 31 Tail of Crocodiles 194 

Sirens 207 Tail of Fishes 211 

Skeleton of Bat 39 Tapir 82 

Skeleton of Camel 1.") Teeth of Carnivora 44 

Skeleton of Dugong 114 Teeth of Echini 340 

Skeleton of Man 14 Teeth of Fishes 213 

Skeleton of Ostrich 16 Teeth of Gasteropods 325 

Skeleton of Perch 16 Teeth of Rodents 69 

Skeleton of Turtle 17 Temperature, adaptation in 

Skunks 56 relation to 350 

Sloth 75 Tenuirostres 158 

Slugs 325Terebella 313 

Snails 325 Teredo 332 

Snake Lizards 200 Termites 265 

Snapping Bugs 250 Terns 184 

Snapping Turtles 192 Terricola 313 

Snipes 177 Thorny Woodcock 327 

Snow-bird 142 Thrushes 150 

Snowy Owl 138 Tiger Beetles 247 

Spanish Fly 251 Tigers 47 

Span Worms 284 Tinamous Family 170 

Sparrows 142 Toads ' 206 

Spawn of Fishes 215 Todies 156 

Species and varieties 52 Tongue of Chameleon 197 

Species, defined 21 Tongue of Felidai 45 

Species, number of 363 Tongue of Frogs and Toads. . . 205 

Spermaceti Whale 110 Tongue of Humming-birds ... 159 

Spiders 300 Tongue of Limpets 325 

Spinal Marrow 18 Tooth-billed Birds 147 

Sponge 352 Torpedo 223 

Spoon-bills 176 Tortoises 191 

Spring Beetles 250 Toucans 162 

Springbok 100 Tree-hoppers 291 

Squirrels 70 Tridacna 331 

Stag Beetles 249 Tripoli 366 

Stang Fishes 341 Trogons 157 

Starfish 20, 337 Troilus 286 

Starlings 143 Trumpeter 176 

Storks 177Tubicola 312 

Sturgeons 219 Tumble Bugs 248 

Suctoria 315 Tunicated Mollusks 328,333 

Sunbirds 159 Turbinidffi 326 

Surinam Toad 206 Tiu'bot 220 



382 



INDEX. 



Turkey Buzzards 135 

Turkeys 168 

Tusseh Silk 243 

Tyrian Purple 327 

Unicorns 83 

Univalves 317 

Ursidte 58 

Vampire Bat 41 

Velvet of Deer 96 

Velvet-spotted Beetle 250 

Venus' Comb 327 

Vertebrae 13 

Vertebrates 18 

Vespidai 275 

Viperine Snakes 202 

Vultures 134 

Wading Birds 173 

Walking Leaves 255 

Walking Sticks 255 

Walrus , 65 

Warblers 148 

Warm-blooded Vertebrates ... . 22 

Wasps 275 

Water Ousel 151 

Water Shrew 68 



Wax-wings 153 

Weasels 65 

Web-feet 179 

Weevils 251 

Whale Louse 311 

Whales 108 

Wheel Animalcules 315 

Whelks 327 

Whippoorwills 155 

White Ants 265 

Whorl family of Mollusks 326 

Wing-footed Mollusks 322 

Wing of Bat 40 

Wing of Birds 116 

Wing of Insects 232 

Wing of Wax-wing 154 

Wolf 52 

Wolverine 61 

Woodcocks 177 

Woodpeckers 163 

Wrigglers 294 

Yak 93 

Yellow-bird 142 

Zebras 85 

Zebus 91 



THE END. 



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